HomeMy WebLinkAbout26 Getting to Smart Growth------~ -----------------------~----~------. . . .
Getting to Smart Growth
100 POLICIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
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Getting to Smart Growth:
Sma rt growth is deve lo pment th a t serves the eco n o my, commu-
n ity, an d the enviro nmen t. It provides a fr am ewo rk fo r co m -
muniti es to m ake in fo rmed deci sio n s a bout h ow and wh er e they
grow. Smart growth makes it possible for communities to grow in
ways th at suppo r t eco n o mi c deve lo pm e nt and jo bs; cr eate strong
ne igh borh oods with a r an ge o f housin g, comme rcial, and tran s-
portation o pti o ns; a nd ac hi eve hea lth y communiti es that provid e
fa mili es with a cl ea n enviro nment.
In so do in g, sma rt growth provides a so luti o n to th e co n ce rns fac-
ing many communi ties abou t th e im pac ts of th e hi ghl y disper sed
deve lo pment pattern s characteri stic o f th e pas t 50 years . T h ou gh
supportive o f growth , co mmuniti es are ques ti oning the economic
cos t s of a band oning infras trucuire in the ci ty and r e buildin g it far-
th e r o ut . T h ey are qu es ti onin g th e necess ity o f s pe nd in g increas -
in g time in ca r s locked in tra ffi c and trave ling mil es to the n ea r es t
store. T h ey a r e qu es tionin g th e pr ac tic e of a b a nd o nin g
b row nfi e lds in o ld er co mmuniti e s whil e deve lopin g o pen space
and prim e agri cultu ra l la nd and th e re by d am agin g o u r en vi ron-
m en t at th e su burban frin ge. As th ese qu ali ty -o f-life iss u es becom e
increasi n gly important fo r America n co mmunities, loca l and st at e
p oli cym a ke rs , pl a nn e r s , d ev elop e r s, and others a r e turning t o
sm art growth as o n e so lu ti on to th ese chall en ges .
100 POLICIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
They are n o t alone . In th e ea rly 1990s, numerous nati o nal orga n-
iza ti on s similarl y r ecogni ze d the probl em s fa cin g co mmuni ti es . In
1996 , th ey came to gethe r to form the Smart Growth e twork,
which is now a broad co alition of 32 organizations that support
smart gr owth (se e Ackn owl ege m en ts). As a fir st ste p, the n etwork
ex amined the brea dth o f ch ar ac t e ri stic s o f su ccess ful co mmunities
and fr o m tha t process, d eve lo p e d the t en principl es for smart
growth (see box). These principles illustra t e the characte ri stics
ass oci at ed with healthy, vibrant, and di verse communities that
o ffer their r es id ents cho ices o f h ow and wh er e t o li ve . They also
su gges t o pti o n s for fo rmin g p o li cy direc ti o n at loca l levels to
implem ent sm art growth .
The ten principles were a first ste p in arti culating the goals of
s mart gr ow th . T o introdu ce communiti es t o the b e n e fit s and
tec hni q u es assoc ia t e d w ith th ese goa l s, th e Inte rn a ti o nal
City/C o unty M a na g em e nt A s s oc i a ti o n (ICMA), th e U.S.
E nvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Network wrote
a nd di s tribute d thr ee p r im e r s : Why S mart Grow th , B es t
D evelopm ent Prac tices, and Pedestrian -and Trans it -Friendly D esign .
The fourth primer in the se ri es is G e tting t o Smart G rowth : 100
P oli cies for Implementation . While many state and local govern-
m ents h ave been able to su ccess full y impl e m ent poli cies that ha ve
INTRODUCTION •
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
SMART GROWTH
PRINCIPLES
1.
Mix land uses
2.
Take adv antage of
compact building design
3.
Create a range of housing
opportunit ies and choices
4.
Create walkable neighborhood s
5.
Foster di stinctive,
attract ive communitie s
with a strong sense of place
6.
Preserve open space, farmland ,
natural beauty, and critical
environmental areas
7.
Strengthen and di rect
development toward s existing
communities
8.
Provide a variety of
transportation choices
9.
Make development
decisions predictable ,
fair and cost effective
10.
Encourage community and
stakeholder collaboration
in development decisions
created healthy, livable communities, more work is needed. For
many other communities, there is a wide gap between recogniz-
ing the benefits of smart growth and deve loping and implement-
ing policies to achieve it. The primary purpose of this fourth
primer is to address this gap .
Getting to Smart Growth: JOO Policies for Implementation aims to
support communities that have recognized the value and impor-
tance of smart growth, and now seek to implement it. It does so
by highlighting and describing techniques to h elp policymakers
put the ten smart growth principles into practice. The policies
and guidelines presented in this primer have proven successful in
communities across the U.S ., and range from formal legislative or
regulatory efforts to informal approaches, p lans, and programs.
They do not represent the only means to achieve the principle
identified, but they do represent real and innovative ways for
communities to realize smart growth.
Perh aps most critica l to successfull y achieving smart growth is
realizing that no one policy or approach will transform a commu-
nity. The policies described here should be used in combination
with each other to better achieve healthy, vibrant communities. A
first step in the process of evaluating and determining how com -
munities want to grow, is for communities to recognize t h e
importance and value of modifying the way they grow. This can
be achieved through a community-or region-wide discussion that
honestly examines the development chall enges facing the com-
munity and evaluates the benefits and downsides of both current
and alternative growth strategies. In most cases, this collaborative
process will result in some measure of popular and political sup-
port for a community's vision on how and where to grow. Once
this foundation is in place, a course for implementing this vision
can be determined. It is in this context, then, that the following
100 policies can be considered as parts of a comprehensive and
multi -pronged approach to achieving healthy, vibrant, and diverse
communities that offer bona fide choices of h ow and where to
live.
Admittedly, putting the smart growth principles into action
requires changes to the way communities function . It requires
that local governments, lenders, community groups, zoning
officials, developers, transit agencies, state governments , and oth-
ers agree to a new way of doing business. This shift, however, will
be eased by a process, such as the one described above, which
clearly illustrates the myriad economic, community, and environ-
mental benefits that are gained from a smart growth approach.
After all, regardless of his or her role in the development process,
each of the individuals involved in shaping how and where a com-
munity grows stand to benefit from the improved quality of life
that smart growth can provide.
This primer includes ten sections corresponding to each of the
ten smart growth principles, plus an appendix. Each "principle"
sect ion discusses the role of the principle in a holis t ic smart
growth approach. Ten specific policies are then highlighted for
each principle, supplemented by a series of "practice tips" that
either illustrate their application in a community, or identify addi-
tional resources to aid communities in implementation. Finally, an
appendix describes the most likely level of government for imple-
mentation of each policy, and the other principles that each will
help achieve.
II
Table of Contents
I. MI X LA ND USES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II. TAKE AD VANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
III. CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
IV. CREATE WALKABLE CO M MUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
V. FOSTER DISTINCTI VE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
VI. PRESERVE OPEN SPACE , FARMLAND , NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS . . . . . . . . . . 43
VII. STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
VIII. PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
IX. MAKE DEVELOP M ENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE , FAIR , AND COST EFFECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
X. ENCOURAGE COM M UNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
APPENDIX A: MATRIX -100 POLICIES FOR IMPLEMENTATI ON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
APPENDIX B: BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
LIST OF ACRO NYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Chaptei· On e
Mix Land Uses
M ixing land uses-commercial, residen-
tial, recreational , educational, and oth-
ers-in neighborhoods or places that are acces-
sib le by bike and foot can create vibrant and
diverse communities. In large part, a mix of
uses attracts people to shop, meet friends, and
li ve in urban neighborhoods like Georgetown
in Washington, D.C., or sma ll towns like
Wiscasset, Maine. Mixed land uses are critical
to achieving the great places to live, work, and
play that smart growth encourages.
However, in many communiti es, current devel-
opment patterns mandate a separation of land
uses. Conventional suburban development-
which is primarily low-density, s in gle -u se
development-is a si gnificant departure from
the way towns were built in the early 20th ce n-
tury. During that time, land uses were more
integrated, enabling many people to wa lk to a
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
Integrating homes and retail make
walking for short trips more viable
at The Crossings in Mt. View,
California.
corner store, school, or work. Where once walking to school as a
child was the standard practice, today land uses and other changes
in development patterns combine to make walking or bicycling the
mode of transportation for only 13 percent of all trips made to
school.1 While the separation of land uses was originally intended
to protect communities from polluting industries and businesses,
it has led to a pattern of land development in which stores, hous-
ing, and schools are often placed so far apart that they can be
reached only by car. Improved environmental regulation and pri-
vate sector innovation mean that many businesses are now cleaner
than they were eighty years ago when zoning was first introduced
to separate land uses, thereby eliminating much of the need for
their strict separation from homes and schools.
Though the need to separate uses has diminished, it remains a
common practice that creates inconvenience for American house-
holds who spend a growing share of their day traveling between
home, work, shopping, and school. Separate uses levy larger social
costs, as well, by fundamentally changing the character of commu-
Photo: Smart Growth N ~worit
nities and undermining the
viability of opportunities
for people to walk to shops
or work, and to meet and
chat with their neighbors
on the way. In fact, one-
fourth of all trips that peo-
ple make are one mile or
less, but three-fourths of
these trips are made by
car, 1 in part a result of
inhospitable pedestrian
streetscapes (see Principle
4) and of a lack of other
transportation options (see Principle 8). Where once locating uses
near each other posed an environmental risk, a new environmental
challenge has emerged instead from such separation of uses. Air
pollutants from cars-now the primary means of access and
mobility in this auto-oriented land-use pattern-are responsible
for 20,000 to 40,000 cases annually of chronic respiratory illness.3
In addition, auto dependency requires more roads and more park-
ing, thus increasing the total amount of impervious surface in
communities and causing more polluted stormwater runoff to
enter our rivers, streams, and lakes.
Smart growth supports the integration of mixed land uses into
communities as a critical component of achieving better places to
live. When homes are located within walking distance to grocery
stores or quality employment centers, alternatives to driving-
such as walking or biking-once again become viable, thereby
enabling more Americans to take advantage of this convenient
lifestyle. A mix of land uses also provides a more diverse and siz-
able population and a wider commercial base to support public
transit. Mixed land use can enhance the vitality and perceived
security of an area by increasing the number of people on the
street. Furthermore, a mix of land uses helps streets, public spaces
and retail stores again become places where people meet, thus
helping to revitalize community life.
Mixed land uses also convey substantial fiscal and economic
benefits. Commercial uses in close proximity to residential areas
often have higher property values and therefore help raise local tax
receipts . Businesses recognize the benefits associated with areas
able to attract people because of different uses. More economic
activity exists when there are more people in an area to shop. Lend
Lease Real Estate-a leading resource for real estate investors,
financiers, and builders-has reported for the past five years that
the nation's best commercial real estate markets are cities with
vibrant, traditional downtowns or with twenty-four-hour suburbs.
This trend reflects the value for businesses, which locate in these
communities because they are better ab le to attract ski ll ed work-
ers . In add ition, Lend Lease Real Estate repeatedly cites the
appea l of investment opportun ities in areas that offer a multidi -
mensional environment convenient to work, shopping and recre-
ation.4 In short, there are economic benefits to investing in areas
that offer a mix of uses.
I.
Provide incentives through state funds to encourage residents
to live near where they work.
Teachers, police officers, and fire officia ls, plus many other profes -
sionals, are often unable to afford living near their places of
employment. Instead, they are forced to endure longer and longer
commutes. Many areas across the country are experiencing
increased traffic congestion as a result. Localities can address this
issue by analyzing the current distribution of housing and jobs,
and by targeting areas of imba lances. Areas in need of add itiona l
housing can benefit from, for example, the use of dens ity bonuses,
increased residential zoning, joint development around transit,
and affordab le housing tax credits, to encourage h ous ing co n struc-
tion. Similarly, areas that are principally residential can encourage
businesses to locate there by creating tax increment finance dis-
tricts, providing economic development incentives, and improving
the supp ly and quality of infrastructure needed to support busi -
nesses. Special attention should be given to matching the skills of
current residents with the requirements of incoming jobs.
Another way to encourage a positive jobs-housing balance is for
governments and businesses to work together to provide incen -
tives for people to live near their employment. When employees
take advantage of these incentives, their commuting patterns
change radically, and walking and biking become more viable
transportation alternatives, thus providing additional support for
the mix of retail and civic uses located between home and work.
2.
Adopt smart growth codes to parallel existing conventional
development codes.
Chan ging existing conventional development codes that prohibit
mixed-use development so that they facilitate smart growth devel-
opments can be a time-consumjng and po litica ll y difficult process .
State enabling legislation that enab les local zoning, for example,
may not permit the wholesale change to the underlying framework
that drives and directs deve lopment. Nevertheless, by providing a
policy framework that permits and encourages smart growth
development, local governments enable developers to construct
mixed-use properties without having to endure a long approval
process.
Creating a smart growth code that can serve on a parallel basis
with existing codes can, in fact, help remedy this challenge.
Parallel codes make it lega l to develop innovative projects by right,
such as those that include a mix of uses or that employ different
approaches to parking, while sti ll allowing developers to use con-
ventiona l codes if they so choose. In addition, to communities that
are considering full-scale modification of their zoning and plan -
n ing practices to support smart growth, parallel codes provide a
means of testing the benefits of those modifications on a small
scale. For example, Lee County, Florida has used the parallel
codes approach in several areas slated for redeve lopment.5
States can have a tremendous impact on the viability of mixed-use
construction by creating model smart growth codes that munici-
MIX LAND USES II
PRACTICE TIP:
The Maryland Department of
Hou sing and Community
Development is implementing a
pilot "Live Near Your Work "
Program to encourage employees
of Maryland businesses and insti -
tutions to buy homes near their
workplace. This initiative will sta-
bi Ii ze the nei g hborhoods sur-
rounding the state's major
employers by stimulating home
ownership in targeted communi-
tie s. The st ate contribute s
$1,000, the employer contributes
$1,000, and the local government
contributes $1 ,000 . Togethe r,
these funds can be used for a
down paym ent or toward clo sing
co sts ass ociated with a purch ase.
Fo r more information, refer to
www .op .state .md. us /smart-
growth/lnyw.htm.
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
pa li ties ca n ado p t in pa r all e l to their conventional codes . The state
of Wiscons in, for example, developed a model traditional ne ig h-
borhood design code and required that localities with popu lations
greater than 12,500 adopt the code or one simi lar to it. Wisconsin
permits these codes either to be used as the sole regulatory frame-
work for the community or to
exist in parallel with the conven-
Fort Myers Beach, Florida, adopted an optional smart gro wth code in parallel
tiona l code, thus giving deve lop-
ers a choice of what kind of proj-
ect they want to develop. to the conventional existing code . Thi s parallel smart growth code allows
buildings to be constructed with ze r o setbacks and with canopie s to shade
the sidewalk, and eliminates some of t he open space requirements, to per -
mi t mo re compact con st r uction. Thi s pa ra llel code app r oach was wri tten
to allow a quick compari son of th e "old" and "optional" codes, and has
been wildly succe ss fu l. While some viewed thi s format as cumbersome and
lengt hy, it served its purpose of convincin g lando wner s th at the option al
smart gro wt h code was in their bes t in teres ts.• This opt iona l co de can be
downl oade d at www.fmbeac h.org/ord i nance s/96-20.h tm . The A meri can
Planning Ass ociation also offers model smart growth codes that enc ourage
mixed-use nei ghbor hood s th r ough i t s Gro wi ng Sm a rt effo rt. Fo r mo re
inform ation , vi sit www.pl ann i ng.org/plnginfo/GROWSMAR /gsin dex.ht ml.
3·
Use innovative zoning tools to
encourage mixed-use commu-
nities and buildings.
Despite the obstacles that con-
ventional approaches to planning
and zoning represent-such as
master plans that continue to
require uses to be separated-a
number of zoning tools and
incentives can be used to
encourage the type of mixed-use developments that support smart
growth. Overlay zones-which permit a specia l application of land
use and bui lding design standards in a targeted area-and planned
unit developments (PUDs) are two examples of tools that can be
used to cr eate smart communities when they are implemented
a long with complimentary design guidelines. P lanned unit devel-
opments, which all ow p lanners to eva luate the nature and location
of uses and buildings on an entire site, provide for flexibility in
zoning requirements. While these too ls may require a lengthier
approva l process than more traditional tools, they nevertheless can
be used to encourage smart growth in the short run while the mas-
ter plan and zoning codes are being revised. Political support for
mixed-use smart growth deve lopments can help overcome some of
the project-approva l burdens associated with these too ls.
Many of the most well -known, first generation, mixed -use tradi-
ti ona I neighborhood deve lopments, such as Kentlands i n
Gaithersburg, Ma1yland, were bui lt using PUD ordinances. T h eir
success has made it easier over time for their communities to
adopt more far-reaching po licies to support smart growth. Other
cities use overlay zoning to encourage mixed-use infi ll. For exam-
ple, San Diego has estab lished an "urban village overlay zone" that
encourages mixed-use development. This overlay zone is responsi-
ble in part for creating a pedestrian-oriented, mixed -use develop-
ment in the Hillcrest neighborhood which combines shopping,
offices, restaurants, and homes.7
4·
Facilitate financing of mixed-use properties.
Financiers view mixed-use deve lopment as complex and difficult .8
They are concerned that most deve lopers do not have the knowl-
edge base to be able to manage mixed-use development properly,
so they often fund only projects that are suggested by large soph is-
ticated developers, and even then they may support only a small
portion of the entire project. For examp le, Denver D1y Goods-a
redevelopment of an old Denver department store into market-
rate and affordable housing, office space, and retail-required
twenty-three d ifferent sources of financing.9 When lenders do
support these projects, they may require higher rates of return and
quicker payback periods.
Surprisingly, mixed -use infill projects have an advantage over
m ixed-use greenfield projects, as they are often easier to finance
because the surrounding markets and competition make it easier
to eva luate potentia l success . In addition , infill areas often have
existing prototype buildings that the new project can be compared
against . Large greenfie ld projects, on the other hand, usua l ly
require more difficu lt, sophisticated phasing and large corporate
revenue streams to back up their loans. In areas where single-use
buildings are the norm, new mixed-use bui ldings may not have
comparable projects nearby that can help in determining their
va lue. For those reasons, the project may be undervalued, which in
turn requires the developer to provide more equity or to pay pro-
hibitively high interest rates.
If local government perceives that financing is a barrier to deve l-
oping new mixed-use buildings in its community, it can provide
support by offering credit assurance, equity investment in the
project, or soft second loans to the deve lopers who are pioneering
this type of development. Localities can also work with private
developers, foundations, and pension funds to identify new sources
of financing for mixed-use redevelopment projects. The city of
Albuquerque, New Mexico, for example, became an investment
parU1er with private deve lopers in a mixed-use entertainment area
in downtown Albuquerque . City-owned land in a targeted area
was used for development, allowing the city to become an equity
investor in the project. Other investments in the project were fur-
ther divided into varied time u·anches to accommodate the financ-
ing needs of different parties : the city holds a long-term position,
a loca l foundation gets midterm return on its investment, and con-
ventional financiers and developers receive the project's short-
term returns.10
5·
Zone areas by building type, not by use.
Traditiona l zoning relies on the separation of uses as a means of
managing deve l opment. In combination with compl imentary
bui lding codes, this approach carefu ll y dictates both the look and
use of all buildings in a community. An alternative approach that
encourages a better mix of uses is one that limits regulation to
bui lding type and that a ll ows building owners to determine the
uses. As such, the look an d layout of a street is carefu ll y controll ed
to reflect neigh borhood scale, parking standards, and pedestrian
access ibil ity, but bui lding owners and occupants are all owed maxi-
mum flexibility to determine how the buildings will be used.
This approach allows for a dynamic change in uses over time as
the needs of the community and of the building owner evolve .
With regulations in place to monitor the impacts (such as parking,
noise levels, and hours of business) of different b ui lding uses, for-
PRACTICE TIP:
•
In Port Wentworth , Georgi a, interstate truck traffic has turned the old main street into a major transportation corri-
dor. The i mpacts of thi s, combined with expected pressures for growth, have led the city to seek to redevelop its town
center on 2,100 acres of adjacent, largely vacant, privately owned land . The master plan for the new center uses a
build i ng -type zoning code . Port Wentworth designated ten different street cla ssifications-ranging from lane to boule-
vard to a frontage st re et-an d deter mined the mo st app r op r iate structures to line the streets . The city has paid atten -
tion to the scale of the street, by accommodating taller and denser buildings along wider, more commercially oriented
streets, and smaller detached homes along lesser-traveled neighborhood streets. Once the buildings are constructed, it
is largely up to the building owner to determine what is an approp r iate use. As a re sult of this plan , the large estate-
type home s slated for a frontage along neighborhood boulevards may accommod ate single-family residence s, multi -
family res idences, or limited commercial uses as long as parking and other requirements, which are applied to all such
structure s, are met. Other street types will feature near-lot-line attached structures, which may serve as row houses,
live-work un its , and other commerci al mi xed -use units .
II GE TTI NG TO SMART GROW TH
PRACTICE TIP:
Resource s ex ist to aid communi -
ties in putting greyfield s to full
and profitable use as mixed-
use centers. The Urban Land
Institute provides guidance on
redeveloping commercial strips
(see www.uli.org for more infor-
mation). Also , Gre y fields i nto
Goldfields : From Failing Shopping
Centers to Great Neighborhoods
from the Congress for the New
Urbanism and Price Waterhouse
Cooper s is an ex cel lent resourc e
for technical direction and tool s.
Photo ; Tom Knlbbs
mer residentia l areas may, for examp le, accommodate office space
for doctors, day care centers, or small convenience stores.
Residential areas would not, however, be suitable for a big box
retai ler because of the building and parking standards in place. As
a result, a neighborhood preserves its residential feel whil e provid-
ing more needed services within wa lking or biking distance.
6.
Use flex zoning to allow developers to easily supply space in
response to market demands.
Communities are fluid places, often changing character over time.
T he most vibrant areas across the country, like Newbury Street in
Boston, demonstrate this natural evolution, as former homes are
converted to shops and restaurants thus accommodating the serv-
ice needs of residents that flock to distinctive, vital, pedestrian-
friend ly areas. While commercial space is located on ground
floors, bui ldings often sti ll retain a residentia l component on side
streets an d in upper-floor apartments that create a natural mixed-
use, walkab le area.
F l ex zomng rn areas of transition
between commercial and residentia l
streets can help communities accommo-
date this natural expansion and contrac-
tion of different uses as market needs
cha nge. F lex zoning permits the devel-
oper or bui lding owner to change the
use of the bui lding (assuming that bu ild-
ing codes are met for the new use) with-
out undergoing a lengthy variance or
approval process . As a result, buildings
The Mizner Park shopping complex in Boca
Raton, Florida, converted to a mixed-use,
Main Street design.
are better able to capitalize on fluctuating market demands and
can accommodate retail, office, or residential space as needed. In
conjunction with zoning by bui lding type and mass , zoning for
flexible uses creates a neighborhood feel by managing the look of
the building, while also providing opportunities for dynamic retail
ch ange and small business development within. F lex zoning also
allows developers or building owners to adapt to market changes
and thus make their units more profitable.
7·
Convert declining shopping malls and strip commercial streets
into mixed-use developments.
As shopping malls and strip retail centers become obsolete, com-
munities can exp lore ways to reuse the space-which often are
very l arge tracts of land-as mixed-use developments.
Underperforming regional shopping malls average fifteen acres
and are one of the largest sources of land holdings in existing com-
munities.11 These "greyfields" constitute prime opportunities for
infill development. Left w1touched, these areas not only represent
an enormous loss of potential tax revenue, but they may also signal
the disinvestment and decline of the surrounding community.
Recycling these valuable sites helps a community maximize the
va lue of its resources and capitalize on their advantages: access to a
ready market; working water, sewer, and road infrastructure; and
proximity to transit and existing transportation networks.
Cities like Boca Raton, Florida, have successfully renovated aban-
doned retail areas into vibrant mixed -use developments . Boca
Raton's Mizner Park was a large-scale retail space that was
redesigned to conform to a traditional main street configuration.12
Its success lies in its mixed -use character: shops are located at
street level, with apartments and offices above. Many more such
opportunities exist. Price Waterhouse Coopers esti mates that
there are 140 regional malls in the United States that are aban-
doned. In the near future, another 200 to 250 malls are expected
to be vacated .13
8.
Provide examples of mixed-use development at scales that are
appropriate to your community.
Mixed-use development l ooks different in various setti n gs .
Because there is no one specifi c model that communities ca n draw
on to evoke an image of how mixed-use development would work
in their area, communities that cannot easi ly envision it may be
skeptical of such development and may initi ally oppose it, thereby
creati n g delays and ch a ll enges for developers. By creatin g clear
co n cepts through prototype designs, and by providing clear exam -
ples of what is considered appropriate or desirable mixed-use for
their area, a loca l government or a communi ty group can sh ape
the proj ec ts that developers p ro pose.
T h e planning department of Boulder, Colorado, for examp le, pro-
vided deve loper s with prototype designs of the type of projects
that the community wa n ted built. The clear information and
graphics indicated that the city wa nted communities that would
ensure that the mix of uses that were provided, and the increased
density that resulted, wou l d be aesthetica ll y pleasing.14 The
designs h ave been successfu l. T h e mixed-use development at
Eighth and Pearl Streets so succ essfu ll y integrated residential
units, loca l businesses, and professional offices that it received a
2001 Charter Award from the Congress for the New Urbanism.
The award -winning Eighth & Pearl
development in Boulder, Colorado ,
puts homes in close proximity to
shops.
9·
Create opportunities to retrofit single-use commercial and
retail developments into walkable, mixed-use communities.
Declining retail malls are n ot the only opportunity to create
mixed-use communities. Fully occupied, desirabl e office and retail
structures can be made more so by integrating complimentary
uses into the site. The add iti on of residential, civic, retail, office,
education, or hotel us es into single-use fac ilities is needed to build
effective mixed-use d eve lopments. A number of developments
that are ca ll ed mixed use may, h owever , offe r only on e or two
types of u ses. T hi s type of development is especia lly true for com-
mercial projects that includ e offices and h otels and that do little to
fac ilitate the interaction between the two. Such developments may
be equa ll y gui lty of integrating vita l uses and fa ilin g to provide
easy access between th em . T hi s practice n ot onl y fa il s to cap itali ze
on th e vitali ty that a creative mix of u ses can gener ate, but it also
affects the transportation o ptions that site u se r s h ave avai lab le to
them. R esea rch h as shown, for examp le, that people who work in
wa lkab le mixed-use deve lopments are more like ly to take transit
or to carpoo l to work because they can wa lk to lunch and to the
stores and services they need everyday.15 Using ove rl ay zo n es, civic
building locatio n policies, and tax and other inc entives, communi-
ties can encourage developers to retrofit r eta il and office centers
into true mixed-use communities. T h e vitality and se n se of com-
munity that accom pani es the "twen ty-four-h our" centers that
leaders in real es t ate investment seek can only come from a bal-
anced mix of office space, h ousing, and retail th at are accessib le to
eac h o th er.
MIX LAND USES II
PRAC TICE TIP:
The Legacy Office Park in Plano,
Texas, is typical of conventional
office parks because it has large
single-use buildings surrounded by
parking on l arge campuses.
However, the office park is being
retrofitted into a mixed-use, walk-
able town center community by
adding retail and apartments to
make it more attractive and con-
venient to its tenants. Th e Town
Center plan will introduce apart-
ments, shops, and restaurants and
parks into a pedestrian-fr iendly
street plan that wi l l i ntegrate the
existin g office spa ce into a com-
plete community. For more infor-
mation on Legacy Town Center,
refer to www.postproperties.com
or www.shopsatlegacy.com.
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
The state of California offers
"Jobs-Housing Bal ance Grants"
to employment center commun i-
ties that have the permitted
greatest increa se in th e number
of hou sing uni ts in compari son to
a prev i ou s three-ye a r average.
The competitive grant progr am
also offers bon us points for infill
and affordable housing projects.
The commu n itie s can use the
grants fo r a w i de va r iety
of community projects. For
more information on Jobs-
Hou sing Balance Grants, see
www.hcd .ca .gov /ca/jhbig.
IO.
Reward communities that create a balance between jobs and
housing.
P arts of a region that are home to an overwhe lmi ng number of
jobs, but w h ich suffer from a shortage of housing units, are id ea l
o pportunities t o c reate mixed-use d eve lo pment proj ec ts . In addi-
tion to creating more vital, active communities, this approach can
help to mitiga te the growth in traffic congestion from long com-
mutes by workers who do not li ve near their jobs . The e ffects of
adapting communities to mixed-use deve lopment wi ll be most evi-
dent in areas that a re currently domin ated by o ffice , re tail or li ght
industrial properties.
States can encourage communiti es to create more mixed-us e
structures by r ewardin g th ose that have ba lanc ed community job
loca tions and hou sing need s. States can give smart growth grants
to communjties as a reward for increasing the amow1t of housing
permitted in job-rich locations or for expanding employment
opportunities thro ugh n ew retai l, office, or light in dustrial struc-
tures wit h in o r in clos e proximity to r es id e nti a l areas.
Communities ma y use these funds to support infrastructure needs
or the deve lopmen t of public amenities in these new areas.
Ce nters for Disease Contro l and Prevention and U.S. Departm ent of
Health and Human Services (CDC), Kids Walk-to-School: A Guide to
Promo te Walking to School (Atlanta: CDC). T hi s document is avai lable on line
at www.cdc.gov/nccd php/dnpa/kidswa lk/kid swalk_guide.htm .
U.S. D eparo11 ent of Transportation, Federal Hi gh way Administration ,
R esea rch and Tec hni ca l Support Center, Nationwide Perso nal Transportation
Survey (Lanham, M . D .: FHWA, 1997).
Institute of T ransportation Standards, University of Ca li fornia at Davis ,
Health Effects of Motor Ve hi cle Air Pollution (Davis: University of
Ca li fo rni a Press, 1995).
Lend Lea se Rea l Estate lnves011ents, Inc . Emerging 'frends in Rea l Estate
2002 (New York: PricewaterhouseCoopers and Lend Lease Real Estate
Investments, In c., 2001).
Bill Sp ikowski, e-m ail , 5 Dece mber 200 I.
Keith Covin gton, e-mail , 7 D ece mber 200 1.
International City/County Management Association, The Pra ctice of Local
Government Planning, 3rd ed. (Washington, D .C.: I CMA, 2000).
For a comp lete analys is of financiers ' perce ptions of mixed-use deve lopment,
see J osep h Gyourko and Witold Rybczynski, "Fin ancin g New Urba ni sm
Projects: Obstacles and Solutions," in Housing Policy Debate 11 , no . 3, (2 000).
For deta il s, see www.rose-nerwork.com/projects/denver.h rm l.
JO Fo r more information on time-tranche inve stment and the Albuquerqu e
redeve lopment project see Ch ri s Leinberger, "Financin g Progress ive
Developm ent," Th e Capital Xchange Journal , (May 2001),
www.brooki ngs.edu/ es/urban/ ca pi ta lxc ha nge/a rticl e3 . h tm.
11 She ll y Poticha , Congress for the New rbanism , note s, I-+ ovember 200 I.
12 Andres Duany, Eliza beth Plater-Zyberk, and J eff Speck, Suburban Nation.
(New York: North Point Press, 2000).
13 Con gress for th e New Urbanism and PricewaterhouseCoopers, Greyfields
into Goldfields: Fro111 Failing Shopping Centers to Great Neighborhoods (Sa n
Francisco: Congress for the New Urban ism, 200 1).
14 North east-Midwest Institute and Congress for the New U rbani sm,
Strategies for Successful Infill Development (\'Vashington, D.C.: Northeast-
M id wes tinstitute, 2001).
i ; Cambri dge Systematics, Th e l:.Jfects of La nd Use and 11·avel Demand
Strategies on Commuting Behavior (Was hin gton, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Transportation , Federal Highway Ad mini stration, 1994).
Chapter T wo
Tal<e Advantage of Compact
Building Design
A mericans are consuming more land than
~ver before. During the last two decades of
the 20th century, Americans developed l and
three times faster then we grew as a nation.
Between 1982 and 1997, the amount of urban-
ized land used for development increased by 45
percent, fr om approximate ly 51 million acres in
1982 to 7 6 million acres in 1997. During this
same period, however, population grew by on ly
17 percent.1 T hi s rapid land consumption is
due in large part to the growing size of homes
and retail space on a per capita basis. According
to the American Housing Survey, the median
new house size grew from 1,725 square feet in
1993 to 1,928 square feet in 1999-a 12 per-
cent increase in size in just six years2-despite a
sh rinkin g average household size of just 2 .6 13
persons. Some of this growth is the result of
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
Ill GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
consumer demand, but some of it is also due to nonmarket incen-
tives, such as zoning and tax breaks, that encourage larger homes.
Similarly, in the last 30 years, the amount of retail space has
grown four-fold from five square feet per person to 20 square feet.4
As more land is used for construction of homes and retail, less is
available on a regional basis for preservation as recreational areas
or for agricultural uses .
Smart growth encourages communities to determine how and
where they want to grow. An important part of achieving smart
growth, compact building helps create the convenient neighbor-
hood centers that people want. Compact building design also
presents opportunities to absorb growth and development in a
way that uses land more efficiently. By using smaller building
footprints for new construction, compact design leaves undevel-
oped land open to absorb and filter rainwater, which in turn
reduces flooding and stormwater drainage needs and lowers the
amount of runoff pollution. Other benefits accrue as well.
Compact communities help achieve the density of population
needed to support viable transportation alternatives. It is estimat-
ed that people will willingly walk to destinations-services as well
as transit stops-located within a quarter to one-half of a mile
radius. Thus, a minimum density of six to eight households per
acre around bus stops would support bus service, and fifteen to
twenty households per acre would support rail transit. The expe-
rience in California demonstrates that creating more compact
communities, which doubled household density, had the effect of
reducing verucle travel by 20 to 30 percent, as people are able to
use convenient and cheaper alternatives to the car.; Furthermore,
compact neighborhoods require fewer linear feet of utility lines-
like water, sewer, electricity, phone service, and others-than dis-
persed communities do. As a result, local governments find that it
is cheaper to provide and maintain many services to compact
communities.
Communities may accomplish more compact design by incorpo-
rating structured rather than surface parking or by encouraging
buildings to grow up rather than out, for example . The obstacles
to compact design in a conventional zoning context are formida-
ble. Minimum lot size requirements and prohibitions against mul-
tifamily or attached housing are just two common practices that
make it difficult to achieve more compact communities. These
regulations may reflect a community's desire to attract larger
high-cost homes and tl1e increased tax revenue they represent, or
the negative associations many people instinctively have to devel-
opment that is labeled "higher density." Regulations may also
reflect, however, a lack of familiarity among community members
with examples of high-quality, high-value compact building
design and the benefits associated with them. As a result, many of
America's favorite town centers and neighborhood meeting
places-such as downtown Annapolis, Maryland, or the town
plaza in Napa, California-would be illegal to build today. As the
public becomes more informed about density and the benefits it
can convey, the following policies may be of use in incorporating
compact building design into the American streetscape.
I.
Use public meetings about development options to educate
community members on density and compact building options.
Local government officials and developers who propose compact
development face opposition from a public that is unfamiliar with
high-quality compact development. To make smart growth work,
the public will need to see how good design and compact building
will create communities with convenience, privacy, recreation,
and manageable traffic. Public involvement and education at the
beginning of the process is the key to reducing citizens' resistance
to compact neighborhoods.
Visual imaging is one technique to help educate residents and
developers on the demand for and benefits of compact commuru-
ties. A perception exists among builders and developers, for exam-
ple, that people prefer low-density developments. However, a
study done at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
concluded that, when given visual surveys rather than convention-
al opinion surveys, the public prefers development that would be
6
classified as "high density." Visualization technology can be used
at public meetings to gauge citizens' interest in a variety of devel-
opment options or to help community members envision changes
to an existing street by modifying a scanned photograph. Such
opportunities represent an important learning tool in which com-
munity members begin to realize that the determinant of whether
or not they favor a type of development is often not how dense it
is, but how well it is designed. The Local Government
Commission in California helps communities create these
"Community Image Surveys" to educate their citizens about
The Crossings in Mt. View, California , features ready access to parks and
playgrounds throughout this compact, transit-accessible community.
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN m
issues related to planning and design. Private planning consultants
offer simi lar types of visual preference tools. By using tools that
focus on the impacts and benefits of this alternative deve lopment
approach, local communities can overcome much of the uncer-
tainty and lack of fami liarity among citizens regarding compact
communities.
2.
Ensure ready access to open space in compactly developed
places .
Useful urban green spaces are characterized both by parks used
for recreation and by preservation areas used for habitat and envi-
ronmental protection (with the uses combined, when poss i ble).
Well-planned and well-maintained parkland is essentia l in smart
growth communities where compact building design may reduce
the size of private yards. Parks sh ould be designed for a variety of
people and purposes-such as civic plazas, formal gardens, chil-
drens' playgrounds, ballfields, and regional parks. Open space in
smart growth communities should also accommodate the ecologi-
cal functions of undeveloped land, mature trees, and natura l
migratory corridors. Urban green space can provide habitat pro-
tection for birds or small animal species, can host trees that pro -
vide shade and filter the air, and can help recharge drinking water
aquifers. These open spaces are less formal, and their design will
be dictated in large measure by their natural features.
The need for open space, sunlight, and nature persists in all parts
of a smart growth community. In Boston, for example, officials
rep laced a parking garage with underground parking and a park
on top; the new Park at Post Office Square now provides a recre-
ational opportunity in the crowded financia l district. By clarifying
the function and value of the open space created in compact areas,
PRACTICE TIP:
For more information on how to
design good public parks, see the
Project for Public Spaces' Web
site at www.pps.org .
PRACTICE TIP:
Envision Utah , a public-private
planning organization in the Salt
Lake City area, conducted a
series of meetings to address the
future growth of the region . The
attendees , given maps of the Salt
Lake City area and counters that
reflected future population, were
asked to place the population
counters where they thought
growth should occur. Aside from
the team that located the new
population on platforms over the
Great Salt Lake, most groups
realized that they needed to place
future population growth in com-
pact development if they wanted
to preserve fa r mland or natural
ar ea s i n the reg ion . Surveys con -
ducted after the workshop
showed ove r whelming support for
a compact growth scenario in the
reg ion.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
In the Uptown Di strict in Dall as,
Columbus Real Estate (now Post
Propertie s) built apartment
buildings that wrap around struc-
tured parking lots. This gives the
residents convenient access to
their cars and apartments with -
out breaking up the walkable
nature of the community. In addi-
tion, the developer said that resi-
dents could market their apart-
ments as having covered park-
ing-a great asset in hot Te xas
summers.
Photo: Smart Growth N!twork
communities can meet the environmental and recreation needs of
th ose w ho li ve, work, and p lay there.
3·
Encourage developers to reduce off-street surface parking.
Wh il e compact building design ca n increase the viabi li ty of other
modes of tra nsporta ti on, most commu niti es are sti 11 hi g h I y
dependent on the automobil e and shou ld therefore plan to
accommodate parking. Conventional approaches to parking-par-
ticularly large surface spaces between the street and the front door
of the home or business-not only represent in effic ient uses of
va luabl e urban land but also undermine the walkabi li ty that com-
pact communiti es would otherwi se support. Additionall y, these
large paved surfaces in crease the amount of stormwater that
quickly runs off into storm sewers and surface water, thus increas-
ing the risk of flooding an d washi ng pollutants into our streams,
rivers, a nd lakes .
It is estim ated t ha t for each car
on American roadways today,
e ight parking spots exist-many
of them on surface parking lots.7
Commun iti es ca n better plan for
parking and reduce the need for
surface l ots by using severa l
tools. T h ey can all ow on-street
parking to qua Ii fy towards the
Materials and creative treatment of
facades allow high-density buildings
to be integrated into the revitalized
Lower Downtown (LODO) district of
Denver, Colorado.
amount of parking a building owner needs or encourage buildings
th at need parking at different times of the day to share parking
spaces. Communities can work with employers to offer the option
of financially compensating employees who do not use the com -
pany parking lot. They can a lso reduce many of the negative
impacts of parking by building parking structures. As structured
pa rking is more expensive than surface parking ($10 ,000 per space
to build and maintain su·uctured parking versus $1,400 per space
for surface), 8 loca liti es may need to encourage its construction
with financing incentives such as city funds, the use of special tax
districts, or tax in crement financing. In so doing, jurisdictions can
free up va luab le land in compact urban centers for property devel-
opment that will generate tax proceeds, thereby offsetting the
additional costs. Montgomery County, Maryland, for examp le,
charges a specia l parking assessment on new development near
the Bethesda Metro station. Developers who opt not to comply
with requirements for structured parking must pay a fee that is
used by the county t o build and maintain its own multi-story
parking lots in the area.9
4·
Match building scale to street type in zoning and permit
approval processes.
Commu niti es can highlight more opportun iti es for compact
building design by creating stronger links between street width
and building scale. People feel more comfortable in neighbor-
hoods in which buildings and landscape properly frame the street
area. Buildings that are closer to the lot line, for example, frame a
street and ca lm its u·affic, which makes walking more pleasant. A
similar relationship exists for buildings lining large arteria l roads.
For examp le, a wid e boulevard that currently accommodates one-
story buildings a lo n g each side may become more visua ll y pleas-
ing and well proportioned if four-story buildings line it instead.
By clearly defining this balance between street type and building
sca le, a community can encourage more compact communities
and, as a result, can better absorb new growth and development.
Rezoning existing commercia l strips to require taller buildings on
the street rather than behind large parking lots is a good start for
rebuilding declining commercia l strips into vita l town centers.
Not only does this strategy transform inhospitable pedestrian
environments, but it also creates more space for office, residential,
and retail uses. When more people and uses are drawn to an area,
they create a pleasant, walkable environment that offers a sense of
place and increases demand for more stores, restaurants, offices,
and homes.
5·
Establish model state-level design standards and codes to
encourage compact building design that can be adopted by
local communities.
Developers and neighborhoods face enormous challenges when
they seek to create more compact development. More often than
not, current planning and zonin g requirements set minimum lot
sizes, setbacks, and parking requirements in a way that makes it
ill egal to construct compact buildings. Additiona ll y, zoning stan-
dards limit the density in many conventional neighborhoods and
business centers to a level that precludes development that would
be considered compact. Rather than being encouraged, developers
who want to build compact smart growth communities are instead
forced to endure the time-consuming and expensive process of
securing variances to the prevailing code.
Local governments may be unaware of the extent to which their
current planning documents prevent compact communities. They
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUI LDI NG DES I GN II
may also lack the resources necessary to modify th eir zoning and
building codes once they ha ve recognized the n eed to do so . State
governments can h elp by creating model codes that specify the
design standards, zoning requirements, and codes necessary to
create smart growth communities. This practice of state-generat-
ed model codes is not uncommon; many states have deve loped
codes (wh ich genera ll y reflect conventional suburban develop-
ment standards) that can be directly adopted by small communi-
ties . States that want to encourage smart growth ma y offer smart
growth model codes that localities can adopt as easi ly as they can
adopt conventional development codes. The state of Oregon pro-
vides a useful example with its publication Model Development Code
and Users Guide for Smail Cities, 10 and with its dedicated state staff
to help educate and assist loca l governments that want to deve lop
codes to promote compact communities.
6.
Use density bonuses to encourage developers to increase
floor-to-area ratio (FAR}.
Density bonuses can promote many smart growth features in
communities while also creating the land-use intensity that more
efficiently supports public services . Density bonuses have been
us ed to provide a variety of amenities including parks and plazas
and structured parking. The basic premise is that a developer is
granted the opportunity to increase the size of a building beyond
that which is all owed by zoning, in exchange for providing a pub -
li c amenity from which the community can benefit. The level of
the bonus is designed to cover the cost of providing the amenity.
In order for the community to get what it wants, h owever, th is
tool needs to be designed carefully, as there have been many cases
in which open spaces provided through density bonus programs
have been i ll conceived and underutilized. Explicit design stan-
PRACTICE TIP:
Building height to street width
ratios can be found in a variety of
new urbanist or traditional neigh-
borhood design guidebooks
including, Andres Duany and
Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk's 1991
book entitled, Towns and Town
Making Principals. For more infor-
mation on redeveloping commer-
cial strip centers read the Urban
Land Institute's 2001 publication
entitled, Ten Pr inciples for
Reinventing America 's Suburban
Strips, written by Michael D.
Beyard and Michael
Pawlukiewicz .
PRACTICE TIP
For more information on density
bonuses see Marya Morris'
Incentive Zoning: Meeting Urban
Design and Affordable Housing
Objectives, an American Planning
Association 's Planning Advisory
Service Report (no . 494) in
2000.
Ill GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
The city of Milwaukee, Wi sconsin,
reviewed its zoning requirements
and found that the addition of a
variety of new zoning changes
made the buildings on its most
desirable st reets illegal. If these
neighborhoods would have been
destroyed in a disaster, they could
not have been rebuilt as they
were. In the process of revising
the zoning code, Milwaukee
stripped the code of many of the
modifications. The resulting code
is very simi lar to the zoning cod e
enacted over fifty years ago.
PRACTICE TIP:
For more information on con-
structing compact homes with pri-
vacy, see Steven Fader's Density
by Design, published in 2000 by
the Urban land Institute.
<lards, clear building criteria, and an engaged review board can
ensure that the amenities are provided at the highest quality level.
As a resu lt of the use of density bonuses, not only do res id ents
benefit from higher density development in targeted areas, but
they also benefit from complimentary amenities that support a
more compact community.
The use of density bonuses around the country illustrates the
wide range of amenities that can be secured. The city of Bellevue,
Washington, used density bonuses to secure public plazas and
ground floor retail space in its downtown redevelopment project.
Near the Ba ll ston Metro station in Arlington, Virginia, bonuses
were used to create housing and retail space in buildings that
would have otherwise been exclusive ly office space, thus creating a
lively twenty-four-hour neighborhood. Density bonuses in
Montgomery County, Maryland have relieved the added cost of
an inclusionary housing ordinance (see Principle 3, Policy 1 for
more information).
7·
Ensure a sense of privacy through the design of homes and
yards.
Opposition to compact communities is sometimes based on the
perception that buildings within these commun iti es wi ll be ugly
and poorly designed and will offer little or no privacy to residents.
Certainly, the threat of poor design is not limited to compact
buildings, but careful design can improve the relationship of the
compact building to the community around it and serve the
unique needs of those that reside or work within the community.
When buildings are designed appropriately, residents and build-
ing users can benefit from the amenities that accompany attrac-
tive, compact communities, without sacrificing personal privacy.
Well-designed projects balance both the need to engage the
street, by having the primary facade "open" to the strt>et, and the
need to ensure a l eve l of privacy for building occupants.
Apartments ca n be designed to provide center courtyards for resi-
dents to enjoy a sanctuary from the public. Narrow lot housing
provides private s paces in sid e or back yards that offer a private
refuge. Additional consideration in building construction ca n
ensure that neighboring houses that overlook these private areas
have windows mounted hi gher in the wall to allow li ght in while
limiting views of neighbors' yards.
8 .
Employ a design review board to ensure that compact build-
ings reflect desirable design standards.
Attractive design is critical to balance the many competin g
demands placed on compact building design for efficien cy, priva-
cy, and access ibili ty. A design review function ca n be a means not
only to preserve the community character that exists, but also to
ensure that new development reflects an appro pri ate and comp li-
mentary style. Use of a design review board ca n h e lp alleviate
fears of compact building design and help interpret a co mmunity's
preference for new development. As a result, review boards can
help ensu re that a n y amenities received from developers i n
exchange for incentives are well-designed assets to the communi-
ty. Design review is found in most hi storic districts, but a commu-
nity need not h ave a historic designation to benefit from this
process. D eve lop ers can also benefit from a we ll-executed design
review process because it can reduce time and uncertainty of the
project approval process.
While design review can help ensure that the proposed projects
meet th e commun ity's vision for h ow it wants to grow, it cannot
take the place of inadequate or poor planning and zoning. It is
imp ortant that concurrence between the planning and zoni n g
already exist and that they both reflect the community's wishes.
Since va lu e judgments are inherent in the design review process,
it is critical that all potential stake h o ld ers are represented in the
review board and that the gu id e lin es developed by the review
board are a pp roved by interested members of the communi ty.
9·
Offer incentives that encourage local communities to increase
density.
Local governments may avoid higher density development for
fiscal or other r easo ns. State and regional governments can pro-
vide financial in centives to encourage loca l governme n ts to
approve compact building proposals with high er lo ca l densities.
Fina nci a l incentives are a way to pass on to compact communities
the cost savings that those communities generate for higher leve ls
of government. Thanks to compact loca l design, the state and fed-
era l government pay less o n a per unit basis for education, school
busing, transportation, and water and sewer services than they
wo uld under conve ntional development patterns.
The many sources of funding fl ow ing from state and regional
governments include federal transportation funds, urban develop-
ment block grants, and state income tax revenues, to name a few.
These funding sources can be allocated on a priority basis to com-
pact communities, thereby encouraging others to follow this
examp l e. In the San Franc isco Bay Area, for examp l e, the
Metropolitan Transportation Commission awards bonus regional
transportation dollars to communities that build high-density
housing n ear mass transit facilities (See Principle 8, Policy 1 for
more detail).
TAKE ADVAN TAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN II
IO.
Support regional planning efforts to encourage compact com-
munities.
Residents are the best able to determine how and where their
n eighborhood or jurisdiction grows. The impacts of these devel-
opment decisions, however, have a dramatic effect on regional
growth, traffic congestion, environmenta l quality, and quality of
life. Plans for incorporating hi gher densities into communities
must be coordinated with transportation investments , parks and
open space, and school p lanning, among other things. As such,
Detached single family homes in Northwest Landing in Dupont,
Washington , share an adjacent park and are bu ilt on lots of only 2500
square feet -roughly 1/2 the size of a typical housing subd ivision parcel.
PRACTICE TIP:
For more information on design
review see Rachel Co x's Design
Review in Historic Districts, a 1997
publication of the Nation al Trust for
Histo ric Preservation, Gary Hac k's
"Ten Commandments of Design
Review" (available at www.city-
comforts .c om/hack .html), or Mark
Hin shaw's Design Review, published
by the American Planning
Association 's Planning Advisory
Service (no . 454) in 1995.
Ill GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
communities can benefit from coordinating efforts at the regional
level to identify areas targeted for more compact deve lo pment. By
encouraging each locality to recognize both the local benefits and
the regional implications of this development approach, more
support can be built across the region as a whole for compact
communities.
Regional coordination can also help communities alleviate the
concerns some residents may have about absorbing more than
their "fair share" of the growth in the form of higher-density
developments. The distribution of these clusters of development
around the region, particularly when coordinated with regional
transportation planning and transit nodes , can have a significant
positive impact on open space preservation and air quality while
also reducing traffic congestion. Regional coordination can also
help tie the compact building decisions of localities to the
benefits, in the form of land preserved on the urban fringe, that
these decisions help achieve. These lands-whether they are used
for agricultural or recreational purposes-provide economic and
quality of life benefits to all members of the region. Making this
link clear to area residents will help generate stronger support for
creating more compact, vibrant communities.
William Fulton, et al., "Who Sprawls Most? How Growth Patterns Differ
across th e U.S.," Brookings Institution Survey Series Guly 200 I).
2 U.S. Census Bureau, American Housing Survey for the United States: 1999
(Washington, D.C., 1999) detailed tables from the 1993 AHS-N Data
Chart.
3 The 19 90 census estimated 2.63 people per household; eight years later,
the 19 98 census estimate calcu lated onl y 2 .61 persons per household.
4 Kathy Schaich, "Target Versus K-Mart," National Public Radio 's Morning
Edition 29 August 2001, story on discount retail competition.
5 John Holtzclaw, Using Residential Patterns and Transit to Decrease Auto
Dependence and Costs (San Francisco: Natural Resources Defense Council,
1994).
6 Emil Malizia, "Consumer Preferences for Res identi al Development
Alternatives," Working paper 2000.02, (C hap el Hill: University of North
Carolina, Center for Urban and Regional Studies, 2000).
7 Tri-State Transportation Campaign, Parking Management Brochure,
2001. Available online at www.tstc .org/pricing/parkman/parking.pdf.
8 Ibid.
Information on these and other parking too ls can be fow1d in the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency online document, Parking Alternatives:
Making lif/i:iy for Urban Infill and Brown fields Redevelopment 1999, located at
www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/publications.htm.
10 Oregon Department of Transportation and Deparm1ent of Land and
Community Development, Oregon 'franspo1tation and Gro wth Management
Program, Model Development Code and Users Guide for Small Cities (Salem,
Oreg.: State of Oregon, 1999).
Chapter Three
Create a Range of Housing
Opportunities and Choices
By using smart growth approaches to create
a wider range of housing choices, commu-
nities can begin to use their infrastructure
resources more efficiently, better accommodate
the housing needs of all residents, and help
aging citizens remain in their homes. Housing
is a critical part of the way communities grow,
as it constitutes a significant share of new con-
struction and development. More importantly,
however, housing provides people with shelter
and is a key factor in determining a household's
access to transportation, commuting patterns,
access to services and education, and consump-
tion of energy and other natural resources.
Providing quality housing for people of all
income levels is an integral component in any
smart growth strategy. In addition to improving
a household's quality of life, housing can ensure
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
m GETl ING 10 5MART GROw fH
PRACTICE TI P:
a better jobs-housing balance and generate a strong foundation of
support for neighborhood transit stops, commercial centers, and
other services, thereby mitigating the environmental costs of
auto-dependent deve lopment.
Changing demographics mean that the standard post-World War
II approach-one that emphasized the construction of single-
family detached homes-may no longer adequately meet
America's changing housing needs . The share of households com-
prised of two parents and their children is d iminishing, while the
number of single adult h ouseho lds and households without chil-
dren is growing. Furthermore by 2030-for the first time in the
United States-one in five Ame r icans will be elderly. Many older
citizens will be unable or unwilling to drive or care for expansive
back yards. While the single-family detached home will remain
the housing product of choice for many, demand is growing for
greater alternatives in housing. Housing that is constructed to
accommodate the needs of some for better walkabili ty, access to
transit, proximity to publicly maintained parks and civic spaces, or
The Moderately Priced Dwell i ng Unit (M POU) program of Montgome ry County, Maryland, is pe r haps the most well -
known version of an inclu sion ary zoning program, which has cre ated mo re than 10,000 affordabl e hous i ng uni ts since
1974. The program requires that 12.5 to 15 percent of all units in developments of 50 units or above be set aside for
hou sehold s ea rning mo derate incom e-rou ghly 60 perce nt of the area's med ian. Th ese un its ar e th en re ser ved for pu r-
cha se by lo w-income home buyers or nonprofit g r oup s who in turn rent the hou se to lo w-income tenants . The units that
are sold are pri ce -co nt r olled to rem ain affordabl e for a per io d of ten years. I n exch ange fo r the se t-as ide, develop ers
wh o comply wi t h t he pro gram are gi ven de nsity bonu ses tha t allow mo re uni ts-2 2 percen t i n t he M POU program-to
be con structed on t he same am ount of land . The program has been cred ited wi th i nc reas ing econom ic and racia l dive r-
sity in M ontgo mer y County's ho us ing developme nts , as we ll as vastly ex pand i ng the number of affo rda bl e uni ts avai l-
able to res idents at a rela t iv ely lo w co st for th e county.
smaller housing units in familiar neighborhoods, for example,
helps communities achieve smart growth and creates more
options from which households can choose.
The opportunities to expand the range of housing choices are
myriad. Housing choices in new developments can be diversified
by modifying land-use patterns for greenfiel d sites. Existing
neighborhoods, too, can benefit from a wider range of choices by
changing zoning and building codes to increase the type and
quantity of units provided. This can also lead to other benefits.
Integrating single-and multifamily structures in new housing
developments and existing neighborhoods can help reduce the
concentration of poverty. The addition of units-through
attached housing, accessory units, or conversion to multi-family
dwellings-to existing neighborhoods creates opportunities for
communities to slowly increase density without radically chang-
ing the landscape. New housing construction can be an economic
stimulus for existing commercial centers that are currently
vibrant during the workday but suffer from a lack of foot traffic
and consumers in evenings or weekends. Most importantly, a
range of housing choices allows all households to find their niche
in a smart growth community-whether it is a garden apartment,
a row house, or a traditional suburban home-and accommodates
growth at the same time.
I.
Enact an inclusionary zoning ordinance for new housing devel-
opments.
lnclusionary zoning represents a critical means to both create
affordable housing units and achieve a greater range of choice in
housing location for below-median-income households. The dis -
tribution of housing that inclusionary zoning can help achieve
throughout a region ensures that more opportunities exist for
households to live near jobs , services, and other resources. By
requiring that some portion of every new housing development
beyond a given thresho ld size (e .g. fifty units) is offered at a price
that wi ll be affordab le to low -income residents, inclusionary zon-
ing helps to both increase the number of affordab le units and cre-
ate mixed-income communities.
Beyond the Maryland program (see practice tip), other programs
in Ca lifornia, New J ersey, F lorida, and Oregon offer variations on
this basic model. Some programs offer developers the opportuni-
ty to bypass this requirement if a contribution is made to a
regional affordab le housing trust fund; the risk inherent in this
bypass, however, is that affordab le housing will be constructed in
pockets of low-income communities. Other programs waive regu-
latory requirements, such as parking spaces, or reimburse impact
fees for developments that include affordable housing.1
2.
Provide home buyer assistance through support to commun it y
land trusts.
Community land trusts (CLTs) constitute a long-term, permanent
means to ensure affordability in h ousing an d to provide an oppor-
tunity to expand the range of housing choices in smart growth
communities . CLTs participate with traditional home buyers to
lower th e cost of purch asing a h ome by retaining ownership of
the land upon which a home sits and making it ava il able to resi-
dents through a long-term lease. By doing this, CLTs make it
cheaper for lower-income househo lds to buy a home. Since CLTs
ar e nonprofit organizations and hold the land for a long period of
time, they ensure that the house wi ll rema in affordab le for many
future h ome buyers.
CREATE A R~NGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES ANO CHOICFS m
When traditional subsidies for home ownership, such as down
payment assistance or first-time home buyer subsidies, are admin -
istered through CLTs rather than given to purchasers directly, the
benefits can be shared with future low-income purchasers.
Subs idies become, in essence, permanently tied to the proper ty
rather tl1an to the recipient household. For examp le, down pay-
ment assistance in the amount of a grant of 5,000 can be used to
assist the CLT in purchasing the land portion of a targeted prop-
erty. Whereas the grant would provide a on e-time benefit to the
targeted home buyer (thereby requiring additional, larger grants
in the future to convey the same benefit to future bu ye rs), the
same grant will remain available to future residents (in the form
of a lower acquisition cost) when directed t h rough a CLT.
Communities should work to educate lenders about the concept
of CLTs to ensure that future CLT home buyers will be able to
access conventional sources of financing. Approaches such as this
are critical to ensuring that a sufficient range of housing at vary-
ing levels of income exists to allow for all types of households to
find their place in a smart growth commun ity.
3·
Revise zoning and building codes to permit a wider variety of
housing types .
In many areas, communities are hampered by regu lations in cre-
ating the types of developments that advance smart growth.
Setback requirements, regulations restricting the number of units
within a building, and lot-size standards advance the concept of
traditional suburban growth but are not well suited to helping
communities reap the benefits that smart growth can yield, which
include better walkabi lity and a greater range of housing and
transportation choices . Reduced or flexible parking requirements
would allow developers to construct more units and therefore put
PRACTICE TI P:
The Institute fo r Community
Economics in Cambridge,
Mas sachusetts, is a technical
res ource and provider of a loan
fund to support community l and
t r usts . L earn more at
www.iceclt.org .
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
Cary, North Carolina, which ha s
been challenged by rapid growth
and rising housing prices, cur-
rently operates under a zoning
code that allows all single-family
homes to include accessory units,
but requires them to be attached
to the main building and occupied
by a relative . The town is con sid -
ering removing both of those
restrictions, which would expand
both the type s of ADU s that can
be built and the number of people
who can take advantage of them.
One builder, who has already rec-
ognized the potential market
value of ADU s, includes 300-
squ are-foo t "suites" in new town
homes in Carpenter Village. More
information can be found at
www.townofcary.org/depts/dshom
e.htm.
Newly constructed homes in
Northwest Landing in Dupont,
Washington, offer accessory units
above rear-entry garages.
more households in closer proximity to bus and rail, making tran-
sit-o ri ented development more viab le. Additiona ll y, regulations
that prohib it the con struction of multifamily housing impose for-
midable obstacles to building duplexes, row houses, and garden
apartments.
Construction of entire new neighborhoods is not the on ly way to
create new h ousing supply. Opportunities to expand the range of
housin g choices also present themse lves in existing single-fami ly
neighborhoods . Spaces above garages, finished basements, and
attics with sepa r ate entra nc es all represent potential h omes for
elderly people, adult singles, or sma ll famil ies. These "granny
flats", "mother-in -law " apartments, or elder cottages-generally
termed accessory dwellin g units (ADUs)-provide a way for chil-
dren who have grown up in a neighborhood, or seniors who have
outgrown th e ir large family homes, to remain in the area near
family an d friends . As rentals, these units can provide an impor-
tant source of income to help households afford the purchase of
t h eir h ome. When combined with a reverse mortgage, ADUs
permit se niors to age in place wh il e receiving a steady stream of
income. They also serve to gently increase tl1e density of neigh-
borhoods without new parcel development, whi ch can in turn
provide better support for expanded transit and commercial activ-
ity. To gain the benefits of ADUs, communities must address the
zo ning and building codes that currently prevent them and active -
ly consider the concern of neighbors who fear that ADUs wi ll
dramatically cha n ge the look and feel of tl1eir neighborhood . If
these issues are addressed adequate ly, housing can more easily
meet the needs of a diverse and changing population, and home
owners gain more choice in h ow they u se their homes .
4 ·
Plan and zone for affordable and manufactured housing devel-
opment in rural areas.
Housing needs remain pressing problems in many rura l commu-
nities today. Fi nding adequate solutions to address them presents
an opportunity not onl y to better house many residents but also
to facilitate housing development in a way that encourages smart
growth. When these needs are not considered, the result has been
poor qua lity h ousing on unserviced land scattered throughout
rural farmlands or on the outskirts of towns. Improved solutions,
with better access for residents to services and infrastructure, can
be achieved by planning and zo ning for a broad range of housing
types in rural areas.
Improved design, materials, and construction technology have
helped to make mobile and modular homes a very viable approach
to affordable housing in many rural-and urban-contexts. Local
governments would be we ll served to explore these opportunities,
as well as opportunities for traditional "stick-built" housing, and
to plan and zone for them accordingly. By accommodating tl1is
growtl1, communities will be better able to respond in a coordi -
nated way to demands for low-cost housing and to e nsure that it is
in conformance with health and service standards. Communities
can address these needs by discussing service provision and infra-
structure needs w ith landowners prior to deve lopment, and by
enforcing standards for maintenance, upkeep, and title transfer
post-deve lopment.
5·
Educate developers of multifamily housing units and
nonprofits on the use of limited-equity (or equity-restriction)
components.
Opportun iti es to expand housing choices present themse lves not
on ly in the construction of new housing types, but a lso in an
inclusive approach to ownersh ip structures as well. Beyond the
tradition a l condominium approach to owners hip in multifamily
or attached housing developments, co-operatives (in which mem-
bers own shares in the overall ownership structure and the right
to occupy their unit) and community land trusts (in whic h a non-
profit trust owns the land, and the resident owner retains title to
the house) represent additional, and at times more affordab le,
approaches to home ownersh ip.
These various ownership structures lend themselves to further
broaden in g the range of affordab ili ty cl1rough inclu sio n of limited
equity components. These regulations place li mits on the amount
of equ ity or profit that can be earned by a sin g le home owner
over a period of time. In places where h ous in g prices are rising
quickly, t h is program helps to keep the housing affordable for
future purchasers. Depending on the structure, mese equity li mi-
tations provide a fixed return o n in vestment (for examp le, two
. . "' ' . ~ ... ... . "'-=-"""~-·
Benedict Commons provides
affordable housing opportunities
for Aspen , Colorado , employees.
CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES II
percent appreciation per year of ownership) or limit the sales
price based on ave r age below-median in co m e leve ls for house -
h old s . In eicl1 er case, cl1e ab ili ty to limi t cl1e amount of profit that
h ome owners can earn from cl1e sa le of their w1its means cl1at th e
unit can be purchased by an approved household (often one that
mu st meet in come criteria) for a lower cost man would normall y
be the case . Despite a co n cern mat some participants may find it
difficu lt to build e nough equity to later afford a non-subsidized
h o m e, limite d equity ownership still remains a viable means to
bu ild modest amounts of wea lm an d expand access to h om e own-
ers h ip for many.
6.
Educate realtors , lenders, and home buyers on the use of
resource-efficient mortgages.
Resource-efficient mortgages a ll ow h ome buyers to factor t h e
cost savings assoc iated wim homes that are nea r transit or mat are
energy-efficient into cl1eir mortgage calcu latio n , and can h e lp put
a wider range of housing options w imin reach for people. Initial
pilots of t h e Location-Efficient Mortgage5'11 (LEM) by Fa nni e
Mae and the Center fo r Neighborh ood Technology have he lped
to expa n d the range of h ous in g that is affordab le n ear trans it,
w here t h e total h ouse h o ld sav in gs accrued by lowe r transporta-
tion costs are factored into me mortgage-qualifying calcu lations.
A simil ar product is in development to ca pture h o u se hold utili ty
savi n gs cl1at are associated w icl1 energy-efficie nt h ousin g, an d to
factor those savings into qualifying calcul ations.
T h ese tools w ill n ot o nl y make transit-accessible a nd energy-
efficient h ousing more accessible for curre nt h ome bu yers. In
add iti on , over time, me avai labi li ty of these spec ia li zed financing
resources-and t h e resultant market demand-will stimulate
PRACTICE TIP:
In the ski resort town of Aspen,
Colorado, where the average cost
of homes is more than $2.2 mil-
lion, local officials worked with a
developer to create affordable
home ownership opportunities.
Benedict Commons is a downtown
housing development that serves
local employees earning between
$17,000 and $38,000 per year.
The deed restrictions on the units
require that the resale price of
units does not rise faster than the
rate of inflation. In this way, the
community guarantees a perma-
nent supply of affordable housing
to local low-wage employees
and provides home owners an
opportunity to earn a profit-
albeit a limited one-on
their housing investment. More
information is available at
www. rose-network.com /projects/
benedict.html.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
Chic ago, Illinois, was one of the
first sites fo r the groundbre aking
LEM . In i tiated in 1999 wi t h a
$21 million commitment from
Fa nnie Mae, l enders i n the
Chicago area have used the LEM
to help household s qua I ify for
housing in t ra nsit-rich areas . The
mortgage work s as follows. A
"location value" is attributed to
units located nea r transit and for
households tha t have lim ited use
of private vehicles . That loc ation
va lue is then f actored i nto the
household's qualifying levels . In
the case of a two -pe rs on,
$60,000 per ye ar income ho us e-
ho Id in the city 's Edgewater
neighborhood, for example, the
use of the LEM would allow the
household to qualify for a
$212 ,218 home-$53 ,854
greater th a n the amount the
household would qualify for under
traditional underwriti ng guide -
lines.
greater construction of housing that fit these criteria. By facilitat-
ing the construction of these types of housing, these financing
too ls will provide greater choice for households that choose to
locate near transit or in energy-efficient homes.
7·
Implement a program to identify and dispose of vacant and
abandoned buildings.
Vacant buildings can act as physical indicators of neighborhood
blight and disinvestment in existing neighborhoods, and as they
such represent barriers to reinvestment and revitalization. While
vacant buildings may present very real physical obstacles in the
form of fire and safety threats to adjacent structures, they also
pose a significant psycho logica l barrier to the community's
resources. Nevertheless, vacant properties represent potentially
valuable untapped resources for revitalization and redevelopment
as well as prime opportunities to expand the housing stock in
existing neighborhoods .
Local governments or nonprofit organizations can facilitate resale
and reuse of these buildings. Properties that remain vacant and
deteriorating often are a result of tax arrears, liens, or other unre-
so lved financial obligations or legal issues that present obstacles
to transfers of ownership. Local governments can help address
those issues by stepping up enforcement actions against owners
where building code violations exist. In addition, local govern -
ments can make public information about vacant buildings more
accessible to potential purchasers and redevelopers of the proper-
ties. In cases where the owner cannot be readily located, or where
arrears are of a significant magnitude, public seizure and auction
can be used to recoup unpaid taxes or liens, while at the same
time creating investment opportunities for developers or home
owners. Local governments and nonprofit organizations can help
stimulate interest in opportunities to purchase these units by tar-
geting investment and infrastructure resources in the surrounding
areas and by marketing the assets of underutilized neighborhoods
to prospective residents and investors. The result is one in which
the buildings will no longer serve as examples of disinvestment
but will act as symbols and opportunities for economic growth
through their return to use as functional housing units.
8.
Adopt special rehabilitation building codes to regulate the ren-
ovation of existing structures.
A sizable share of older, pre-World War II buildings characterizes
many urban and inner-suburban communities. When they are
well maintained, these buildings can represent a desirable housing
stock because of their architectural uniqueness. When they are
not, however, these buildings can quickly disintegrate into blight-
ed or vacant structures, posing risk of fire, economic disinvest-
ment, and increased crime for the neighborhoods surrounding
them.
The same features that make the buildings unique can also make
the prospect of their conversion into modern housing units cost
prohibitive for potential redevelopers. Building codes most com-
monly used to monitor structures are, for the most part, suited to
regulate new construction in houses that conform to modern
standards of hallway width, window and door dimensions, and the
like. Retrofitting older homes-which may contain more narrow
hallways, for example-to these standards represents a costly and
time-consuming challenge for many prospective investors.
Parallel codes to regulate renovation of existing structures can
stimulate tl1e upgrading of homes, expand housing opportunities,
and facilitate reinvestment in existing neighborhoods. These
codes do not replace the dominant building codes nor do they
require that all buildings conform to pre-World War II building
standards . Rather, these codes, which were adopted in consulta-
tion with fire and safety officials, ensure that the full range of
housing stock is available for safe and secure use by prospective
tenants.
CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES El
9·
Enlist local jurisdictions in implementing a regional fair-share
housing allocation plan across metropolitan areas.
The effects of individual housing needs are manifested at a
regional level. It is not uncommon to find, for examp le, enclaves
of middle-and upper-income housing supported by retail shops
and services in which the employees are unable to afford housing
anywhere near t h eir typ i cally l ow -wage jobs. Often t h ose
employed in the service econ omy, the public sector (including
teachers, police officia ls, and firefighters), and increasingly in
white-collar professiona l jobs are forced to seek affordable hous-
ing in distant parts of the metropolitan region. The result has
been longer commutes, more congested roadways, an d a growin g
disparity between high-cost and low-cost housing areas. Loca l
governments often view the need to supply more affordab le h ous-
ing as a fiscal burden . T h ey perceive r i sk i n exchan ging the
potential high tax revenue earned from expensive housing for the
potential net cost associated with low-cost housing, where service
needs exceed generated tax revenue. This perspective fa il s to rec-
ognize the interrelatedness of the locality's housing needs and the
economic growth it desires. This view also fails to recognize the
regional impacts that w il l resu lt for all community members
should this jobs-housing imbalance persist (see Principle 1, Policy
1 for more information).
Fair-share housing-all ocation plans ca n ensure t h at adequate
hous ing opportunities exist regionwide. When all local govern-
ments within a region comply with their "fair share" of affordable
housing (as determined by population, projected job growth, or
Previously vacant and abandoned build-
ings are converted to high-quality,
affordable housing in the East Russel
neighborhood of Louisville, Kentucky.
exis t ing jobs -housing
imba lance, for exampl e),
the risk of clustering low-
PRACTICE TIP:
In Richmond, Virginia, a commu-
nity-based process was used to
determine its six priority neigh-
borhoods for revitalization , of
which the disposal of vacant prop -
erties was seen as a critical piece .
The "Neighborhoods in Bloom"
program focused on enforcement
actions against building code vio-
lations, streamlined assistance for
the rehabilitation of units, and
targeted use of federal block grant
money for infrastructure upgrades
in the priority neighborhoods. As
a result, during the first two years
of the program, violent crime
rates dropped by nearly 40 per-
cent , and property values
increased at a rate that exceeded
rates in the city as a whole .
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
In the state of New Jersey, state
officials first secured the support
of fire officials in creating their
Rehabilita tion Code, by citing
that vacant structures posed a
greater fire risk than did buildings
renovated under the proposed
code . After the introduction of the
rehab codes , rehabilitation work
in the five largest cities increased
by 60 percent in the first year of
the code's implementation and 83
percent in Newark alone .
PRACTICE TIP:
Pen sion funds present a
signifi cant opportunity to direct
financial resources to support
smart growth . In California,
state treasurer Phil Angel ides has
encouraged the state's largest
pension funds -Cal PE RS
(California Pub I ic Employees'
Retirement System) and the
State Teacher s Ret irement
System, on whose boards he
sits-to invest more of their
money in revitalizing urban cen-
ters in California.
income households in only a few areas drops. It also ensures that
the potential cos ts to loca litie s of providing low-cost housi n g are
e qu a ll y distrib u ted among the region. Furthermore, t h e geo-
graphic distribution of affordab le h o using units creates more
opportunity for households to l ocate near jobs and services,
thereby mitigating the need for long commutes and congestion.
Guaranteeing complia n ce ca n be difficu lt from a regulatory or
l egis lativ e standpoin t, as few regiona l b odies exist that wou ld
trump loca l government a uthority. Incentives ma y be created,
h owever, to reward communities th a t do comply.
IO.
Give priority to smart growth projects and programs that fos-
ter smart growth in the allocation of federal housing and com-
munity development block grant (and other) funds .
Block grants such as HOME a n d Commun ity Development
Block Grants (C DB G), as we ll as the Low-Income Housing Tax
Credit, represent signifi cant sources of fu n ds for hou sin g and
communi ty development. W hil e the federal government provides
these resources, state and loca l gove rnm en ts h ave a great deal of
discretion in a llo ca tin g them. By m odi fying th e sta ndards that are
used to distribute these funds, communiti es can en courage proj-
ec t s t o incorporate desired smart growth aspects . Rather than
r e pl ac ing goo d current h o u sing and communi ty development
projects, loca l governm e nt ca n e n courage these projects to be
better by incorporatin g smart growth ch aracteristics . T h ese proj-
ects might includ e transit access ibili ty, a mix of uses , n ew housing
constru ction in existing n eighborhoods, or the rehabilita ti o n of
existing buildings to includ e accessory dwelling units or multi-
fa mily hou si n g.
These priorities for fund in g all ocation must be set at the local or
state level and sh ou ld reflect both the federa l standards for their
u se as we ll as the community's own vision of how and where it
wa n ts to grow. Loca l decision making all ows communities to sup-
port their priorities, such as the revita li za tion of existing neigh-
borhoods, the preservation of open space, or development to su p-
port expanded transit, pedestrian, or bicycle use s. As a result, not
only will federa l funds be used to expand access to housing and
community services, but these funds will be used in a way that
considers a wider ra n ge of long-term needs of th e community.
Se e Marya Morris, incentive Zo11i11g: Aleeti11g Urbmi Desig11 and ,.Jffordable
Housing Objectives, Planning Advisory Service Report No. 49-f , published in
2000 by the American Planning Association, for a more complete descrip-
tion of this approach .
Other Resources:
• Smart Growth Network and Nationa l Neighborhood Coalition 's rljfordable
Hou sing and S111mt Growth: Making tbe Comzettion (Washington , D.C.:
Smart Growth Network, 200 1).
Chapter Four
Create Walkable Communities
Before the mid-l 900s, urban communities
and neighborhoods focused on the pedes-
trian. They were designed to move people to
their destinations. However, in the past fifty
years, dispersed development patterns and the
separation of uses have led to an increased
reliance on personal automobiles and to an
elimination of many characteristics that support
walkable communities. Today, traffic engineers'
a nd developers' arguments that sidewalks will
not be used leave many new streets without
sidewalks or with sidewalks on only one side.
The engineers and developers are right in one
sense: sidewalks by themselves will not induce
walking. Other pedestrian-friendly features
must be present, such as an appropriate mix of
densities and uses, compact street intersections,
and neighborhoods that are scaled to people.
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
The city of Pas adena, Californ ia
has developed a Specific Area
Plan fo r the neighborhood of
Ea st Pa sa dena . The plan provides
policy objectives and standard s to
enable th e community to meet it s
vision of being "an economically
viable and attractive environment
with a full range of mobility
options-auto, light rail , bus ,
bicycle and pedestrian ." To meet
the community goal of improved
mob ility and an enhanced pede s-
t ri a n environment, the city has
developed a series of land -use
strategies (emphas i zing transit-
or ie nte d dev e lopment and infill
de ve lopm ent) to en cou ra ge a n
in cr ea sed mix and highe r dens i ty
of land use s in transit co r ridors.
Th e city ha s al so encour aged a
ser ies of urban de sign improve-
men ts , including the addition of
l andscaping, crosswalks, pub I ic
parks, and plazas, to add pedes -
tr ian -friendly amenities to the
city's st ree ts cape .
infi ll deve lopments. In addition, community groups and local
governments can ensure that stree ts and walkways are better con-
nected to each other so that pedestrian activities are increased .
Ensuring that street construction standards are pedestrian-friend-
ly also enhances the walkability of any community.
Transportation authorities can reroute bus routes and adjust bus
schedu les to maximize ridership, and they can link buses with
heavy rail transit stops, thereb y attracting more ped estrian activi -
ty between transit stops and destinations. Finally, transit-oriented
development (TOD) represents a key opportunity to accommo-
date new growth that is centered around transit and to retrofit
parts of existing neighborhoods to better focus pedestrian options
and destinations (see Principle 9, Policy 9 for more informatio n).
3·
Require building design that makes commercial areas more
walkable.
Shops, offices, pub lic facilities, and other nonres identi a l uses are
destinations as well as community assets . Diverse streetscapes
with retai l shops, restaurants, public art and other amenities
encourage people to linger. A lively and inviting street is viewed
as safe and attractive, whereas an empty street, void of pedestrian
activity, can convey abandonment or danger. Bui lding as pects th at
iso late people and discourage p edes trian activity include "face-
less" bui ldings without windows or doors at eye level, buildings
with n o first -fl oor retail, or bui ldings that are set back a great dis-
ta n ce from the street. Increasing pedestrian traffic in these areas
requires that buildings incorporate designs that create a se n se of
place and security.
T h ere are several tools that local governments ca n use to make
commercia l areas more walkable, including design guide lin es and
zo ning. Zoning for n ew construction can ensure that ground fl oor
space faces the street, street-leve l retail is included in a ppropriate
areas, structures a re built to lot line s, and building fronts are made
permeable by the placement of doors and windows. In addition ,
zoning and street standards ca n be u sed to ensure that blocks are
kept short (see Principle 8, Policy 3), sidewalk commerce is
encouraged (see Principle 5, Policy 5), and parking between
buildings and sidewa lk s is e liminated (see Principle 9, Policy 6).
Finally, the Specific Area Plan can be an important too l because it
allows communities to modify specific building designs and com-
mercial areas in targeted communiti es .
4·
Adopt design standards for streets that ensure safety and
mobility for pedestrian and nonmotorized modes of transport.
Making communities walkable requires that pedestrians and bicy-
clists feel comfortable and secure enough to share the street with
PRACTICE TIP:
Resp onding t o public concerns that existing street design standards were
l imiti ng the livabi l ity and walkability of their community, the pub lic works
depart ment in Sacramento, Cal ifornia, recent ly underwent an aggressive
citizen-base d app roach to revising and ado pting new street standards. The
department brought an advisory team of de velopers, reside nts, bicycle
advoc ates, transportation and urban planners, regional trans it officia ls,
l an dscape architects, and policemen and firemen to the table to th ink "out-
side of the box" about street standards applicable to the uni que needs of
Sacramento residents and business. The resu lts of this process were a series
of street standards that provide flexibility in street design (rath er than a
one-size-fits-all sol ution) and that balance livability demands and the need
t o maintain street f unction .
buses and automobi les. For exampl e, conventiona l street design
places the auto mobil e at the top of the hierarchy of transportation
modes, thus giving priority to automobil e access and efficie ncy
above other consideration s. Trad iti on al street design offers con -
siderable advantages over conventional street design for providing
a se nse of security and conve ni ence. Short blocks , narrow w idths,
landscaping, o n -street parking, through streets and wa lkways
characterize traditional street s and lead to streets that balance the
n ee ds of different transport modes (see also Principle 8, P o li cy 3).
In addition, these characteristics keep urban traffic dispersed and
at low s p eeds-two important considerations for ensuring t h e
safety of pedestrians.
Also, n eighborhood and urban streets must be designed to faci li -
tate pedestrian cross in gs . In ge n era l, pedestrians will cross streets
at crossing points as lon g as it requires going n o more th an 150
feet out of their way. For this reason, well-designed towns ensure
co nve ni ent crossing points eac h 300 feet. This spaci n g is especial-
ly imp ortant on main streets. When fewe r organ ized crossing
points are estab li sh ed, sporadic or spontaneous street crossings by
frustrated pedestria ns create unsafe, unpredicta bl e movements .1
R etrofitting streets to contain design features th at support pedes-
trian activi ty can be challenging, expensive, and frustrating.
Traffic delays resulting from structura l cha nges to the street n et-
work impose costs on users . Communities can be p roactive and
avo id some of the se costs by developing a toolb ox of a pproved
alternative street sta nd ards that meet these criteria . The deve lop-
ment of regulations and incentives that encourage traditional
street design prior to co nstructi on ca n co ntribute to a street n et-
work and design that support ped estrian and other nonmotorized
forms of travel. Through the use of sub division regulations, com-
munities ca n require that new developments contain on-street
parking, land scap ing, sidewalks, narrow roadways, short blocks,
grid-patterned streets, and we ll-ma rked bicycle lanes. Zoning can
be used to reduce setback requirements or require co n s istent,
human-scale design of storefronts.
5·
Adopt design standards for sidewalks.
Better sid ewa lks require better design. Sidewalks need adequate
widths, buffers, continuity, connectivity, and edges to ensure that
t h ey meet t h e needs of pedestrians. However, too few loca l
officials understand these needs and fa il to provide direction or
funding for co n structing or retrofitting sid ewa lks. Many new
developments lack sidewalks, because often no loca l requirement
to build them exists. Throug h the use of design sta nd ards, regular
public in vestment, periodic eval uation of sidewa lk performance,
and subd ivis ion design , communiti es can provide citizens with
secure, convenie nt, and lasting sidewalks.
Specific design standards might incl ude requiring a m1111111um
width for sidewalks, buffers to shield users from traffic, or edges
to clearly mark pedestrian zones. For example, a genera l design
sta ndard for sidewalk width might set a minimum requirement of
a t least five feet. To encourage more comfortab le wa lkin g and
PRACTICE TIP :
CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNlTIES II
Narrow streets , sidewalks , and front
porches all contribute to make the
I'On community in Mount Pleasant ,
South Carolina, walkable for residents and
visitors.
While Martin Luther l<ing Boulevard in Portland, Oregon, in the late 1980s was not much of a credit to its namesake,
a decade later the situation had reversed. By that time, the boulevard that most community residents had previously
regarded as a thoroughfare to shuttle commuters was transformed into a main street and neighborhood center.
Because of the state Depart ment of Transportation's flexib i lity in administering design standards, an intergovernmen-
tal team of officials was able to create a pedestrian-and transit-friendly streetscape and sidewalk. Widened sidewalks,
curb extensions to shorten street crossings, curbside bus stops, and crosswalks were some of the infrastructure changes
that supported increased pedestrian activity. In add ition, the visual character of the sidewalk and boulevard was
enhanced by the addition of ornamental lighting, decorative paving, and frequent street trees.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
The expe ri ence of officials in
University Place, Washington ,
shows ho w street design can
induce changes in vehicular
beh av i or a nd calm traffic.
Universi t y Place is home to
Grandv i ew Avenue-a two-lane
suburban road where traffic held
constant speeds of 44 mi le per
hour, despite posted speed limits
of 35 miles per hour. In an effort
to reduce speeding , a 1.1-mile
sect i on of Grandview wa s
redesigned . Tr ave l lanes were nar-
rowed to 11 feet each, five-foot
bike lanes were added, a two-foot
landscaped edge and a five-foo t
sidewalk were included, and trees
were planted to buffer pedestrians
from the street. Today, motorists
on Grandview operate at speeds
below the 35-mile per hour posted
lim i t , and pedestrians have a
more secure and pleasant environ-
ment for walking.
higher volumes of pedestrians in commercial and school districts,
however, sidewalk widths should be increased to eight to twelve
feet . Large successful downtowns have widths of 20 to 30 feet or
even a fifty-fifty ratio of street to sidewalk width. Sidewalk design
standards might also specify buffers and edges. For example,
design standards might require planter strips of four to six feet in
suburban areas or recommend that fencing, shrubs, and other fea-
tures form edges to parking lots, open lots, or other areas that
must be traversed. Other design standards that can improve the
pedestrian experience include instituting traffic-calming measures
and providing landscaping and street trees to buffer pedestrians
from traffic, locating sidewalks close to building fronts, discour-
aging off-street parking, encouraging on-street parallel parking,
and providing adequate lighting and ample street crossings.
6.
Require traffic-calming techniques where traffic speed
through residential and urban neighborhoods is excessive.
Many new or updated residential streets today are designed to
maximize vehicular flow. Long blocks, wide turning radii, and
broad streets create a comfort zone for drivers, which encourages
speeding and discourages pedestrians. Car volume and speeds
often increase because of the lack of pedestrians, which increases
perceptions of unsafe walking conditions and leads to further
declines in pedestrian use. Traffic-calming techniques can help
balance pedestrian and vehicular use by slowing neighborhood
and main street speeds, thereby encouraging walking. Traffic-
calming techniques can be used both to retrofit existing streets
and to design new streets.
Traffic-calming measures generally include changes in street
design, such as incorporating traffic circles to replace traffic lights
or stop signs, shorter turning radii, speed humps, narrower
streets, or curves in roadways to create shorter visu a l horizons.
Other measures directly address the pedestrian, such as raised
crosswalks, landscaped islands between opposing lanes of traffic,
and fewer road lanes (or the conversion of some lanes to other
uses, such as bike lanes). These structural changes are often
regarded as more effective at reducing speeds on streets than tick-
eting and enforcement and help return the street to all users-
bikers, walkers, drivers, and buses.
7·
Beautify and maintain existing and future walkways.
Making communities walkable not only means providing residents
with pedestrian and pedestrian-friendly infrastructure-such as
crosswalks, bike lanes, sidewalks-but also maintaining that infra-
structure. Sidewalks, streets, and street drains that are not main-
tained act as a disincentive for potential pedestrians and may pose
a threat to safety for bicyclists and people who use other nonmo-
torized means of transport.
PRACTICE TIP:
In a partnership between th e city t ra nsportatio n depa r tment, t he Lo s
Ange l es T rans portation A u tho ri ty, t he Cal i fo rni a Depa r tm ent of
Transpo r t ation, and the U.S. Econo mic Developm ent Admini stration , th e
city of Calabasas , California, wa s able to mitigate the effect of t ra ffic
spillove r from nearby Ventura Freeway and enhance the walkability of the
downtown. Thro ug h the use of extensive tree planti ng and pre servation of
exi sting trees ; the incorpo r ation of boa rdwa lks, boll ards, and lightin g in to
roadway design ; and the additions of bicycl e lanes and bus turnout bays, the
city has created a pedestrian-friendly destin ation. The des ign improvements
and beautification of do wntow n have in crea sed tou r ism an d economic ac t ivity.
Attractive and well -maintained wa lkways encourage more people
to walk to their destinations. Communiti es that incorporate or
create landscap in g (such as trees or shrubs) a long right-of-ways,
in town centers, alon g open spaces, and around other focus areas
encourage walking by providing a more enticing environment.
For examp le , Birmingham, Michi gan, witnessed a 10-15 mph
speed reduction on roads where street trees are present. Public
art, seating, and frequently-maintained trash receptacles in h eavi -
ly trafficked areas such as town centers, civic plazas and parks, and
along transportation corridors, also contribute to the overa ll
pedestrian experience.
Sidewalks require maintenance to ensure that they provide a hos -
pitab le pedestrian environment and to extend their useful life.
While streets are routinely swept, patched, reconditioned, and
serviced, sidewalks in the same neighborhoods are often ignored.
Sidewalks require speedy snow removal and occas iona l resetting
of slabs. Periodic, ongoing repairs and maintenance are necessary.
Healthy neighborhoods have adequate measures to identify and
correct maintenance problems. Bushes, trees, and other vegeta-
tion need to be regularly trimmed. By developing and enforcing
sidewalk-shoveling ordinances and building codes to set standards
for yard maintenance, debris clearance, and bush and tree trim-
ming, loca l officials can help ensure that property owners are
doing their part to augment the public investment in safe and
well -maintained sidewalks.
8.
Provide Americans with disabilities easy access to sidewalks,
streets, parks, and other public and private services.2
Complying with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is not
only a matter of law; it is the best way to meet the needs of all
people. However, engineers are often stymied by the numerous
challenges posed by retrofitting current streets to meet the needs
of people with disabilities, and unfortunately, there are no easy
technological fixes. Because of the difficulties and cost associated
with retrofits, pedestrian access and ADA requirements ideally
should be addressed in al l new developments, infill projects, and
street and sidewalk construction . Street crossings, for example,
should be developed to help people navigate to a cross ing point,
easily identify the entry and exit of the crossing, and avoid barri-
ers along the way. Implementing many of the policies discussed
throughout this section will dramatically increase access, for peo-
ple with and without disabilities, and increase the pedestrian-
friendly nature of new and existing communities . By improving
access, communities can often better meet the requirements of
tl1e ADA-often without incurring any additional expe n se.
9·
Connect walkways, parking lots, greenways, and developments.
Communities need many links to faci li tate pedestrian travel. Even
when residential and commercial areas are in close proximity to
one another, without adequate connections, community residents
are discouraged from substituting short vehicle trips with wa lk-
ing. Unfortunately, conventional land use and design has often
resulted in a street network with minimal or no through streets
and walkways . In contrast, traditional street networks typically
have shorter blocks and numerous through s treets, providing
pedestrians with multiple routes by which to reach their destina-
tion. Retrofitting conventional street n etworks so that they h ave
the connectivity exhibited by traditional street networks is chal-
lenging but possible by using natural features-such as utility cor-
ridors, waterways and other open spaces-to link existing walk-
ways and destinations.
CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES m
PRACTICE TIP:
The city of Richmond , Virginia,
was awarded $80,000 in federal
transportation funds to cover 80
pe rcent of the costs of construct-
ing an accessible sidewalk for
wh eelcha ir users. The sidewalk
linked a home for adults with
sev ere physical disabilities to
Maymont Park in Richmond .
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
An old dairy redeveloped into a
mixed use (retail and housing)
structure initiated the revitalization
of an vibrant, walkable corridor in
Portland, Oregon.
IO.
Identify economic opportunities that stimulate pedestrian
activity.
Design standards, traffic-calming measures, and the other policies
discussed all work to create an environment that is pedestrian
friendly. In addition to these direct m ec hanisms of creating walk-
able communities, local governments can also identify economic
or retail opportunities that stimulate and attract pedestrian activi-
ty. Main Street redevelopment programs , first floor retail, side-
walk service (see Principle 5, Policy 5), and pedestrian malls all
ca pitalize on pedestrian activity for economic development pur-
poses. Communities can enhance walkability by identifying
important local assets-for example, natural features, historic dis-
tricts, or unique architectural design-and by developing eco-
nomic development strategies that use those assets to attract
pedestrians to retail and restaurant venues. For example, many
communiti es have Main Street programs that are designed to
revitalize urban cores or downtown corridors. Some small towns
in upstate ew York, however, are revitalizing their historic Main
Streets with the specific goal of attracting tourists from larger
downstate cities, by getting them out of their cars and onto the
sidewalks where they can browse the antique, craft, and other
shops native to these small towns.
Other communities-including Boulder, Colorado, Burlington,
Vermont, and Charlottesville, Virginia-have capitalized on their
appeal to tourists by creating shopping districts catered to pedes-
trians. These disu·icts-sometimes identified as pedestrian malls
or commons-create a relationship between the pedestrian shop-
per and the storekeeper that is mutually reinforcing. With the
growth in customers who are able to gain access to shops on foot,
the stores flourish and are in turn able to attract more pedestrians
as the retail district grows stronger. Communities can use eco-
nomic revitalization as a magnet for pedestrian activity in any
number of ways. The city of Ann Arbor, Michigan, for example,
created a retail pedestrian atmosphere by permitting two-way
traffic on its downtown Main Street. Parking is limited, however,
and sidewalks are exu·a wide for outdoor cafes. Furthermore, the
city closes the street several days each summer for art fairs and
other special events. The result is a bustling atmosphere all day
and evening, which demonstrates that increasing pedestrian access
can do more than provide a transportation option or improve the
quality of a neighborhood-it can also generate an economic
boon.
Dan Burden, "Building Communities with Transportation," (pa per pre-
sented at th e Transportation Resea rch Boa rd Conference, Washington,
D.C., IOJanuary 2001).
Summarized from Burden.
Other Resources
• Walkable Communities, a national nonprofit organization dedicated to
helping communities become more pedestrian friendly-
www.walkable.org.
• America Walks-a national nonprofit coalition of local advocacy groups
dedicated to promoting walkable communities-http://americawalks.org/.
• Reid Ewing, Pedestrian-and Transit-Friendly Design: A Primer for Smart
Growth (Washington, D .C.: Smart Growth Network, 1999).
Cbnpt er Five
Foster Distinctive, Attractive
Communities with a Strong
Sense of Place
C onventional development patterns have
helped to create a predominance of strip
shopping centers and large suburban tract
home developments that are, with the excep-
tion of small cosmetic variations, largely indis-
tinguishable from cne another. While such an
approach may conserve costs initially and make
development more profitable for some, it does
little to stimulate civic pride or contribute to a
strong sense of place with which community
residents can identify.
Smart growth supports the idea that develop-
ment should not only respond to basic com-
mercial or housing needs, for example, but
should also help create communities that are
distinctive and unique . Smart growth seeks to
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
In the state of Maryl and, where
Governor Parri s Glendening has
made smart growth a key focus of
his admini stration , existing
school s now receive funding pri-
ority over new schools . Long-neg-
lected, older public schools in
existing neighborhood s now
receive 80 percent of new state
school construct i on funds, up
from 38 percent a decade ago . In
2000, the school construction
investment exceeded $300 mil-
lion, with over 80 percent of the
funding being used to renovate
and modernize ex isting schools in
established communities.'
foster the types of phys ical environments that create a sense of
civic pride, and therefore support a more cohesive community
fabric. As a result, economic benefits accrue as well; high-quality
communities with architectural and natural elements that reflect
the interests of all residents are more likely to retain their eco -
nomic vitality and va lue over time .
A great deal can be learned from some of America's most distinc -
tive and interesting neighborhoods, such as San Francisco's
Japantown, the French Quarter in New Orleans, or New
England's small towns. Communities that have a strong sense of
place represent the values of their residents and reflect the unique
historical , cultural, economic, and geographical context of the
area . They use natural and man-made boundaries and landmarks
to create a sense of defined neighborhoods, urban communities,
and regions. These communities encourage the construction and
preservation of buildings, which prove to be assets over time, not
only because of the services provided, but also because of the
unique contribution they make to the look and feel of a commu-
nity. Beyond the construction of buil dings, these communities
reflect their unique characteristics in myriad details-such as
landscaping, signs, and awnings-that h elp to further distinguis h
the area for passers-by and visitors. Guided by their own vision of
how and where to grow, communities that have adopted smart
growth principles can direct investment and development into
areas that already reflect a strong sense of place. Moreover, these
communities can encourage new fringe development to make a
better effort t o crea te distinctive, unique civic assets .
I.
Modify state funding processes and school siting standards to
preserve neighborhood schools and build new schools to a
"community level."
Neighborhood schools are those that serve the educationa l needs
of nearby residents and that contribute to the social and physica l
environment of the community. Moreover, they function as com-
munity gathering places for adult education programs, evening
civic events, or weekend sports competitions. They may serve as
landmarks in a community or as examples of monumental archi -
tecture or historical significance within a region . Schools bui lt at a
community leve l are con stru cted to complement existing neigh-
borhoods and provide improved wa lking or bicycle access to the
school by students and community members. Most importantly,
these schools serve as critical civic anchors in a community, often
actin g as the center of districts or neighborhoods with which resi-
dents can identify.
However, siting standards and funding criteria common in many
states present significant obstacles to communities wisliing to sup-
port neighborhood sc h ools. Current stan dards typical in most
states require vast tracts of land for new construction-equivalent
to 14 acres for an e lementary school with 400 students, or 50
acres for a high school with 2,000 students. Because of these stan-
dards communities are often left with little choice but to build '
these large sc h ools on avai lable land on the urban fringe. These
schools are then forced to accommodate t he grea t number of
vehicles which students require to get there. State standards may
also require new construction if renovation costs to existing
schools exceed a threshold amount (e .g., two-thirds of the cost of
new construction).
Providing for schools in a manner that fosters their incorporation
into the surrounding neighborhood is an important aspect of
smart growth. Through modi fied siting and funding criteria,
states can better support localities that want to maintain existi n g
schools and ensure the responsible placement of new schools .
Other strategies, such as the use of shared-risk insurance plans,
can help overcome the l iability obstacles that often prevent
schools from more fully serving as community gathering points
for other activities and events after hours .
2.
Create a state tax credit to encourage adaptive reuse of his-
toric or architecturally significant buildings.
Well-maintained historic, culturally, or architecturally significant
bu il d ings are often regarded as some of the most valued civic
treasures in a community. These buildings remind residents and
vis itors of an area's unique his t ory a n d provide a visible link to it.
Whi le historic buildings often do not retain their original use,
their adaptive renovation and reuse can create unique, interesting,
innovative spaces for modern services. When clustered in close
geographic proximity, these buil dings can create the bas is for a
specially designated zone or district that may attract tourism and
other appropriate economic development activities. Finally, the
very existence of historic or architecturally significant buildings
may provide the basic bui lding blocks for recreating the pedestri -
an -oriented development typica l of the pre-World War II era.
The community value associated with historic properties, howev-
er, is not always fully represented in the building's market value.
As a result, building owners may not find it cost-effective to
ma intain or renovate these buildings in a way that preserves their
unique features, whi le allowing for modern uses . State tax credits,
FOSTER DI STINCTIVE , ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE m
modeled after the federal program (see practice tip) constitute
one possible action for states to support historic preservation.2
Through state tax credits, incentives can be created for localities
and developers to engage in public-private partnerships, when
appropriate, to convert these buil dings to new uses. Tax credits
would allow owners, for example, to claim up to 20 percent of the
cost of renovation on state income taxes, thereby effectively
reducing the cost of renovation . With creative thinking, effective
partnerships can turn historic theaters into arts centers or retail
spaces, and can renovate small factories as loft apartments or
business incubators. In so doing, not only are valuab le and dis-
tinctive community treasures preserved, but new opportunities
for development in neighborhoods already served by infrastruc-
ture are also created.
3·
Plant trees throughout communities and preserve existing
trees during new construction.
Trees play important environmental, aesthetic, and economic
roles in creating distinctive and healthy places to live. Trees along
PRACTICE TIP:
A 2001 report rele as ed by the
National Park Service cited a 25-
year old federal program
designed to preserve hi storic
propert i es as "one of the mo st
successful revitalization pro-
grams ever created ." The Tax
Reform Act of 197 6 created the
first federal tax incentives for the
preservation of hi storic buildings,
renovating 3 ,000 historic build-
ing s that repre sented more th an
$4.5 bi llion worth of investments
i n the last five years alone . The
Federal Historic Rehab ii itation
Tax Credit is a dollar for dollar
reduction of federal income tax
liability, which perm i t s anyone
who rehabilitates a hi storic build-
ing to claim a tax credit of 20
percent of the co st of the renova-
t ion . For more information see the
press release on www.nthp.org.
New and mature trees combine to
give this new development in
Huntersville, North Carolina ,
a distinct character, and preserve
opportunities for recreation and
natural habitat.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
American Forests, an organiza -
tion dedicated to forestry issues,
has determined that in three
study areas-Atlanta, Puget
Sound, and the Chesapeake Bay
region-development over the
last 25 years has helped to
reduce the heavy tree canopy by
more than one-third . In each of
these areas, the tree canopy cover
falls short of American Forests'
recommended 40 percent average
cover for the metropolitan area .
For more information , go to
www.americanforests.org. Scenic
America, a nonprofit technical
and advocacy organization, ha s a
number of resources to aid com -
munities in increasing their tree
canopy, including a model tree
ordinance. For more information,
go to www.scenic.org .
medians, sidewalks, and embankments serve to filter noise and
pollution from nearby vehicular traffic, as well as mitigate erosion
that causes damage to and raises maintenance costs of adjacent
roadways. Along commercial and residential zones, trees provide
a canopy of shade and shelter from the elements, and soften and
frame the streetscape for the passerby. Large trees along a retail
strip make the strip more inviting, which generates more busi-
ness, thereby serving as an economic stimulu s for the community.
By cooling homes and communities, trees reduce energy costs
and create a more comfortable climate for outdoor activities. By
slo wing stormwater runoff and helping to protect wetlands, trees
can reduce the costs associated with water treatment for local
jurisdictions. They help the environment by cooling temperatures
and by consuming excess carbon dioxide (primarily the result of
pollution), thus reducing the amount of carbon dioxide that con-
tributes to g lobal warming. In short, trees add to the beauty, dis-
tinctiveness, and material value of neighborhoods by incorporat-
ing the natural environment into the built environment.
Through co ll aborative efforts, neighborhoods and the public and
private sectors can be engaged to preserve and add to the tree
stock in a community. In existing communities, tree planting pro -
grams undertaken by schools and civic associations can increase
the presence of trees on residential streets and commercial thor-
oughfares . Other incentives, such as a community grant fund for
tree planting or reduced zoning requirements, can encourage
property owners to preserve existing trees or plant new ones.
Localities can put into place ordinances or incentives that encour-
age landowners to preserve a portion of in-situ trees or replace
trees that could not be preserved. When enacted in concert with a
community's own plan for increasing the supply of trees and tree
canopy cover, these actions can provide an add iti ona l way to cre-
ate distinctive, he althy communities.
4·
Create active and secure open spaces.
Open spaces, whether built or natural, active or passive, help cre-
ate distinctive communities. Pocket parks, playgrounds, plazas,
squares, social gathering places, and other publicly accessible
open spaces contribute to the aesthetic quality of the surrow1ding
area and to the feeling of "community" that fosters a strong sense
of place. Open spaces may also provide environmental benefits as
hosts to trees and penetrable ground surfaces that filter air and
water, respectively, and mitigate stormwater runoff. These spaces
must be managed and designed in a way that ensures the safety of
their users so that the public spaces remain viable and desirable
over time.
Many opportunities exist to foster open space in a community (see
Principle 6 for a full discussion of these issues). For example, open
spaces can be created through incentives to developers, through
direct construction by local governments, or through other pub-
lic-private partnerships. In new developments, open spaces should
be incorporated into the design process and placed in a manner
that ensures maximum access and use by area residents. In existing
neighborhoods, street ends, abandoned lots, brownfields, or dete-
riorated houses may provide opportunities for small, scattered
parks or community gardens. In bustling commercial centers,
plazas, parks, and public squares can serve as prominent visual
cues for business districts, provide amenities for employees and
shoppers, and add va lu e to nearby buildings. Finally, each of tl1ese
settings can serve as a venue for engaging the public in festivals,
community gardening activities, sports events, or other civic
activities that help to ga lvanize the sense of community among
members, and that create places in which people have a vested
interest to preserve and protect.
5·
Simplify and expedite permitting regulations to allow vendors
to offer sidewalk service.
Facilitating sidewalk service (e.g., walk-up window purchases,
retai l displays, dining, and kiosks) is perhaps the easiest way to
provide support for expanded business along pedestrian-oriented
commercial thoroughfares . By allowing vendors to sell their
goods and wares at wa lk-up windows or at kiosks placed along the
sidewa lk, local governments make it easier for entrepreneurs to
connect with their customers, and sidewalk service creates a mag-
net for strolling shoppers who seek an alternative to the local
enclosed mall. The increased foot traffic that results will spur
more business investment and create a vital neighborhood shop-
ping area from which the entire community can benefit.
In many cases, permits for sidewalk service are either difficu lt to
obtain from local governments, or the permits require a compli-
cated approva l process. Local governments, in cooperation with
local business leaders, can target neighborhood shopping districts,
identify the type of reta il activity that would complement existing
businesses, and then simplify and expedite the permitting process
Sidewalk dining helps make
Bethesda Row in Bethesda,
Maryland , a vibrant neighborhood
center day and night.
accordingly. Communities that
are seeking to expand sidewa lk
service should also ensure that
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE Iii
the designated sidewalks are wide enough to accommodate a
higher level of activity.
By coordinating efforts among zoning, licens ing, and pub lic
works officials, potential vendors benefit from an expedited
approva l process, a n d t h e jurisd ictio n benefits from growth in
sa les tax rece ipts and permitting fees associated with new bus in ess
start-ups. Most importantly, communities benefit from a vibrant,
strong, pedestrian -oriented shopping district tl1at can provide a
foca l po int for activity and neigh borh ood identity.
6.
Create special improvem ent di str icts for focused investment.
The designation of specia l districts is a convenient means to
organize and focus investment in a particular area to ac hi eve a
range of outcomes, such as historic
preservation, business improve -
ment, or economic revitalization. It
provides an opportunity for local or
other specia l purpose governments
to establish clear boundaries and
names for geographic areas with
which residents and businesses ca n
better identify. By strength ening
the sense of community in these
areas, c i tizens can become more
invo lved in development decis ions
about the ir own district and t h e
region of wh ic h it is a part.
Creatin g fixed boundaries around
neighborh oods in which tax incen-
tives, regu latory flexibi li ty, or otl1er
PRACTICE TIP:
Main Stree ts are found in nearly every American commun ity and rep-
res ent on e of the mos t common app r oache s to the use of special
improvem ent di stricts. With an emphasis on hi storic pre servation and
economic development, the Main Street program supports commercial
district rev italization as a mean s to benefit al l members of the sur-
rounding community. Nationally, M ain Street communities have had
more th an $12.8 bill ion of new public and private investment in thei r
downtowns. In North Ca r olina alone, the state Main Street program
has seen more than $540 million of new investment and has experi-
en ced a net gai n of 8,400 jobs in downtown areas since the program
began in 1980. The Main Street Center at the Nationa l Trust for
Historic Preservation provides tools and technical assistance to com-
munities to establi sh and revitalize these vital commercial district cen -
ters. Learn more at www.main street.org .
m GETTING TO SMART GROWT H
Unique lightposts, signs, and side-
walk treatments help identify this
Brea, California , retail corridor.
financial benefits are made available can help channel targeted
investment to support strong, vibrant communities. In central
business districts, for example, business improvement districts
coordinate shared responsibility among businesses and building
owners to support entertainment, services, or other amenities that
can attract customers and improve the business climate. Historic
districts are used to help protect tracts of historic buildings
through the provision of tax incentives or grants for restoration
and preservation. Support to designated art corridors may help
attract a critical mass of artists, art suppliers, and vendors, which
would constitute a destination in itself for art l overs.
Neighborhood centers often benefit from a clear determination
of the service area around the center in order to better identify
potential customers and recruit businesses and service providers
accordingly. In these and other cases, creating smaller-scale zones
within a larger urban or suburban context can help residents, visi-
tors, and businesses better identify communities by their stronger
sense of place.
7·
Define communities and neighborhoods with visual cues .
Just as the ancient city wa ll once indicated to people the begin-
ning of a town, visual cues are an important means to help visitors
and residents distinguish areas from one another. Often subtle,
sometimes blatant, these cues act as either focal points or way-
finding aids to attract and direct pedestrian and automobile flow
to commercial or entertainment activities. In so doing, cues create
virtual borders around districts for special uses, give shape and
definition to neighborhoods, and contribute to the unique look
and feel of a given community. Communities that are well defined
and easy to navigate not only attract new activity and investment,
but they help create neighborhoods and amenities that are worth
preserving.
Cues can be explicit, such as signs directing visitors to important
locations or monumental-type architecture, which contributes to
the vista at street ends or along blocks. The decorative gate in
Chinatown, San Francisco, is a clear example of this sort of physi-
cal introduction to a unique and distinct community. Visual cues
can be more subtle, as well, and include elements such as unique
lightposts, novel street signs, varie gated materials for streets or
sidewalks, distinct landscaping styles, or complimentary awnings
or overhangs above businesses. Open space and natural features,
such as greenbelts, creeks, or other prominent natural features,
can also be used to introduce or signal the transition from one
zone to another.
As with other policies to achieve distinctive communities, visual
cues can be incorporated into new and existing communities
through the combined efforts of the public and private sectors.
The preferences articulated by communities for aesthetic details
are codified and enforced in building codes and design standards,
and preferences for the placement and orientation of open space
and monumental buildings are represented in master plans.
Innovative public-private partnerships, which call on the
strengths of each sector to enhance the physical environment for
all, will implement these community preferences.
8 .
Preserve scenic vistas through the appropriate location of
telecommunication towers , and through improved control of
billboards.
Extending high above rooftops and trees, telecommunication
towers and billboards often dramatically affect the appearance of
communities. They may clutter the view of an otherwise scenic
roadway or streetscape or obscure the natural or physical features
of a community altogether. Many creative alternatives exist for
the placement of wireless towers, for example, such placing them
on rooftops, where they can be concea led by high-reaching build-
ing details. However, communities that are pressured into creat-
ing full and fast access for telecommunications infrastructure may
not fully consider these options. Communities can regulate the
placement and use of towers by working with private industry to
generate ideas on how to locate towers and monopoles unobtru-
sively. Joint public-private efforts may include agreements to keep
tower height equal to the nearby tree canopy, to locate towers on
downslopes rather than summits to reduce visua l impact, to limit
towers along ridgelines, or to incorporate them into existing fea-
tures such as water tanks, electric-transmission towers, or church
spires. Documenting these guidelines in ordinances that clearly
spell out the community's requirements for tower location,
appearance, and design can improve the process of expanding
telecommunication networks for all involved.
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE , ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE II
Billboards, too, present an opportunity for improved manage-
ment. Communities seeking to preserve their scenic vistas can
begin by instituting a moratorium on all new billboards and then
encouraging the gradual phase-out of existing billboards upon
expiration of leases. Incentives may be created in the form of tax
abatements or scenic easements to reward landowners who
require removal of billboards from their property upon lease expi-
ration, and who keep their property free of billboards.
Communities that have been successful in limiting or eradicating
billboards in favor of logo signs and tourist-oriented directional
signs have created a higher quality of life for their residents and
have continued to grow their economies based on their enhanced
visual appeal to visitors.
9·
Create opportunities for community interaction.
Communities are defined by more than the physical and natural
elements that comprise them. The most well-designed street in
the world will fail to evoke a sense of community if there are no
opportunities for interaction or vibrant exchange among neigh-
bors. Public places of all sorts can provide the venue for these
sorts of interactions: sidewalks become hosts to outside shopping
or art displays, closed-off streets become havens for b lock parties
or markets, and parks and plazas become open-air theaters for
music or performances. Offered on a regular basis, festivals that
celebrate local produce, historical events, or cultura l traditions
can become a vibrant and ongoing reminder of the unique nature
of a given community, and can create opportunities for distinctive
traditions from which all residents and visitors can derive enjoy-
ment.
PRACTICE TIP:
The organization Scenic America
has created a range of tools that
communities can use to protect
scenic vistas, including model
ordinances that have been pro-
moted by states and are currently
being used successfully to address
unsightly placement of towers
and bi II board s. The se and other
resources are ava i lable through
the organ i zation's Web site,
www.scen ic.org .
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TI P:
The city of S a n ta Fe, Ne w
Me xico , has adopted desi gn guide-
lines that ensure that ne w con-
struction complements the tradi -
tion a l architectura l styl e of the
area , such as the use of light
earth tone colors and tradition al
stucco fini sh mater i al s. Its
Arch i tectural Design Re vie w
Handbook parallel s the city's zon -
ing code and buildin g per mi t
proces s and prov ide s a chec k list
for builders so that they can avoid
delay s in th e approval proce ss.
Broad constituencies benefit from such events and can be tapped
to support farmers' markets , art and music festivals, or even block
parties. Business owners benefit from the increased flow of people
attracted by these events. Schools may support such activities
because of the learning opportunities they present to students and
as a means to sh are with the broader community the ski ll s and tal-
ents of the ir children. Loca l farmers, artisans, and musicians are
likely to p lay a critical ro le in supporting such events , because
these events provide outlets for performances and sales that
would otherwise be unavailab le to them. In many communities,
nonprofit organizations are formed with the support of local gov -
ernment and civic leaders to manage and promote these events .
Chambers of commerce, economic development agencies, civic
associations, and other loca l organizations can play an important
ro le in bringing together the diverse parties that are necessary to
make these events vita l parts of the community landscape.
IO.
Enact clear design guidelines so that streets, buildings, and
public spaces work together to create a sense of place.
Beyond basic requirements for safety and accessibi li ty, buildings
are often su bj ec t to little regulation of how they look, h ow they
are constructed, or how cl1ey relate to the street. In the absence of
such requirements, few developers find it in cl1eir financial best
interest to invest in architectural detail or decorative features,
which would enhance the look of buildings and wou ld contribute
to a more distinctive and appea ling community. The same could
be said of public officials wh o, in the construction of civic bu ild-
ings, sidewa lks, streets, and publ ic parks, are motivated primarily
by the desire to deliver the
necessary product at the low-
est possib l e cost and in the
Strict design criteria help create
Civano 's unique look in Phoenix,
Arizona -one that evokes traditional
Southwest architecture.
shortest possible time . Yet, it is precisely the cumulative effect of
cl1 ese numerous individual development and design decisions that
create the look and feel of our built environments.
Communities cl1at include well -designed bui ldings, attractive sig-
nage, well-maintained facades, and a pos itive orientation of build-
ings to the street are often the most distinctive . Other opportuni-
ties for improved design guidelines pertain to the placement of
bus shelters and benches, the design of sidewalks and bike paths,
the introduction of landscaping and street trees, and the incorpo-
ration of community parks and public gathering spaces. With
improved atte ntiveness to cl1ese aspects, communities are more
valued for cl1eir w1iqueness , better able to attract new businesses
and residents, and therefore less likely to suffer disinvestment and
neglect. This ongoing vitality of neighborhoods is both an out-
growth of and a contributor to smart growth.
As the community estab lishes its own definition of a desirab le
look, an opportunity arises to create a unique, memorable
streetscape to attract future deve lopment. These preferences can
-
form the basis for the creation of clear design guidelin es that reg-
ulate building setback, su·eet and sidewa lk design, arc hitec tura l
sty les, signage practices, a nd building materials. The gu id e lines
can be prescriptive and detailed, regulating everything down to
the size and color o f signs , or th ey ca n set broad para meters fo r
design to a ll ow for maximum diversity among u se r s. In either
case, when they are app li ed in a clear and consiste nt fas hi on, these
design considerations add va lu e to th e community and provide
guidance for developers who, in turn, can create hi gher qua lity
projects by being attenti ve to th eir e nd design from th e ea rl y
stages.
State of Maryland, Office of Smart Growth.
Othe r state activities to support renovation include : (I) the estab li shment
of a state-level "Main Street" office to support local affi li ates, (2 ) priority
allocation of transportation or infrastructure funding for communities
committed to preservin g historic structures, (3) gra nts to loca l no nprofit
orga ni zatio ns to carry o ut rehabilitation and restoration activities, and (4)
efforts to inform loca l government officia ls on the economic and cultura l
value of preserving historic structures.
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE , ATTRACTIVE COMMUNJTIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE m
Chapter Six
Preserve Open Space,
Farmland, Natural Beauty and
Critical Environmental Areas
C ommunities across the United States are
rea lizing that open space preservation is
an important component to ac h ieving better
places to live. Open space supports smart
growth goals by bolstering l ocal economies,
preserving critical environmental areas, provid -
ing recreational opportunities, and guiding new
growth into existing communities. Preservation
of open space can have a profound impact on a
community's quality of life, and therefore a
region's economic prosperity. An economic
analysis performed for the East Bay Regional
Park District in California concluded that "the
provision of open space and associated recre-
ational and educational opportunities, environ-
mental and cultural preservation, a l ternative
transit modes, and sprawl-limiting characteris-
$MA RT G ROWT H
NETWORK
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
Working lands and recreation
resources are preserved by directing
development to existing communities.
Photo : Tim McCabt, USDA Natural Rtsourcts Con strvatlon Strvict
tics, all contribute positively to the quality of life in the East Bay
region."1 A 1997 study reported that owners of small companies
ranked recreation, parks, and open space as the highest priorities
in choosing a new location for their business.2
Networks of preserved open space and waterways can shape and
direct urban form and at the same time prevent haphazard conser-
vation (conservation that is reactive and small scale). These net-
works , known as "green infrastructure," help frame new growth
by locating new development in the most cost-efficient places.
The most cost-efficient locations for new development are where
roads, sewers, water lines, and other utilities cur-
rently exist. Green infrastructure also ensures
that the preserved areas are connected so as to
create wildlife corridors, preserve water quality,
and maintain economically viable working lands.
There are significant fiscal, environmental quali-
ty, and health benefits associated with the protec-
tion of open space. Open space can increase local
property values (thereby increasing property tax
bases),3 provide tourism dollars, and reduce the
need for local tax increases by reducing the need
for construction of new infrastrucuire .4 In addi-
tion, management of the quality and supply of
open space ensures that prime farm and ranch
lands are available, prevents flood damage, and
provides a natural and less expensive alternative
for providing clean drinking water.; Preservation
of open spaces helps to protect animal and plant
habitats, places of natural beauty, and working
lands by removing the development pressure and
redirecting new growth to existing communities.
Preservation benefits the environment by combating air pollution,
attenuating noise, controlling wind, providing erosion control,
and moderating temperatures. Finally, open space also protects
surface and ground water resources by filtering trash, debris, and
chemical pollutants before they enter the community's water sys-
tem.
Political will is increasing to save the places that Americans treas-
ure . Voters in 2000 continued the trend over the past five years by
overwhelmingly approving ballot measures to fund open space
protection-passing 201 of257 open space measures on the ballot,
an approval rate of nearly 80 percent. In most of these referenda,
voters approved tax increases, which provided more than $7.4 bil-
lion for land conservation.6
There is a sense of urgency to saving critical environmental areas.
Once a greenfield has been developed it is hard, if not impossible,
to return the land to its original state. Land preservation is also
becoming more expensive as growth pressures become stronger.
Therefore, communities must work with other communities in
their region and political leaders to expend the resources and
develop the innovative techniques to make open space preserva-
tion a reality. A range of policies and approaches that can help
communities in their efforts are presented in this chapter.
I.
Use transfer of development rights purchase of development
rights, and other marl<et mechanisms to conserve private
lands.
It may not be realistic or desirable for the public sector to buy
outright all of the open space they wish to protect, so innovative
ways to protect targeted areas must be considered. An increasingly
popular tool for land preservation has been the use of market-
based mechanisms such as donated conservation easements, trans-
fer of development rights (TDRs), and purchase of development
rights (PD Rs). These tools all can permanently protect land from
development pressure by channeling financia l incentives to the
property owner.
A PDR-in essence, a purchased conservation easement-offers a
permanent so lution for communities looking to preserve open
space if they are unable to purchase the land outright. Under a
PDR, landowners sell the rights to deve lop their land to a land
trust or government agency while retaining the title to the prop-
erty and the rest of their bund le of rights. As a result, a legal
restriction is tied to the deed for the property that prevents all
future development on the targeted land. Landowners benefit by
not only receiving payment for the PDR, but they are often also
e ligible for some combination of property tax, estate tax, or
income tax benefits. PDRs have been especially successful in pro-
tecting working lands. For examp le, PDRs have been used to
keep almost a million acres of farm and ranch land nationwide in
productive private ownership.7
In a TDR program, a community identifies areas for protection
and areas for increased density. Landowners who own property in
areas designated for preservation are given development credits
that can be sold. These credits can be purchased by developers to
build in areas designated for increased density. TDRs are an
evolving tool, but they have been successful in a handful of loca-
tions. One-third of the 90 ,000-acre agricultural reserve in
Montgomery County, Maryland, is protected through the use of a
TDR program.8 Approximately 13,000 acres of the ew Jersey
Pinelands have been protected since the Pinelands Commission
sanctioned the use ofTDRs in 1980.9
PRESERVE OPEN SPACE , FARMLAND , NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CR ITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS Ill
The use of these innovative tools remains illegal, however, in
many localities in the United States. Therefore, if these tools are
to be effective, it is imperative that states provide the enabling
l egis lation that is necessary to allow communities to preserve
valuable open space .
2 .
Coordinate and link local, state, and federal planning on land
conservation and development.
Many resources exist at the local, state, and federal levels to pre-
serve and protect open space. Often the linkages between the var-
ious programs that would allow them to have a more significant
impact are absent. States can play an active role in building
stronger support for open-space conservation by collaborating
with relevant partners to protect open spaces .
The state of Utah's Critical Land Conservation Committee was
established as a catalyst for locally initiated conservation efforts.
The committee plans to assist localities and organizations by pro-
viding technical expertise, conducting a statewide open-space
inventory, developing a land-use and conservation clearinghouse,
and faci litating the multi -agency and cross-jurisdictional partner-
ships that many open-space conservation efforts require. This
effort included and educated all stakeholders: government, private
industry and organizations, academia, and individuals. 10
3·
Expand use of innovative financing tools to facilitate open-
space acquisition and preservation.
The challenge of paying for a r esource that is unlikely to generate
immediate fiscal benefits, yet necessitates expensive outlays of
capital to secure, requires innovative approaches to financing.
Photo: N!W Jtney ~rtmrfll of Community Affai~
Creating opportunities for open spaces
in high-dens ity downtown contexts --
like this one in Newark, New Jersey --
are critical.
PRACTICE TIP:
For an example of enabling legis-
lat ion for the Ne w Yo r k State
TOR progra m vi sit http ://
assembly.state.ny .us /
leg /? cl = 118&a =33 .
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP :
There are many such tools that ca n be used to finance open-space
acquisiti on and preservation. These tools include levying a por-
tion of the loca l sa les tax or rea l estate transfer tax, in stituting
impact fees , using borrowing power (e .g., bonds), providing
income tax cr edits, cha rgi n g user fees, and co ll ecting fees from
specia l motor ve hicl e taxes or li ce n se plates.
Maryland's "Program Open
Space", for example, provides
For more information on inn ovative approaches to financing open space 100 percent funding for acqui -
sition of parkland, green ways ,
a nd places of speci a l c ultural
va lu e and 75 percent of devel-
acquisit ion, visit the Trust for Publ ic Land at www.tpl.org/tier3_cdl.cfm?
content_item _id = 1175&folder _id= 708 .
opment costs for l ocal and
state parks and recreation areas funded through the state rea l
estate transfer tax. More than 2 ,800 loca l projects have been fund-
ed so far by the program, which places one-half percent of the
purchase price of a h ome or land into a specia l fund. Once the
program purchases a land, the land 's use cannot be altered unless
a suitab le alternative is provided.11 In 1967, Boulder, Co lorado,
became the first city in the United States to pass a sa les tax (0.4
percent) to buy, preserve, and maintain greenbelt land . In 1989,
an add iti on al 0.33 percent was adde d . Us in g thi s and o th er fund-
ing, more than $100 million has been spent on the city's Open
Space Program.12
4·
Employ regional development strategies that better protect
and preserve open space in edge areas.
One of the most fundamental approach es to preserving open
space is to reduce the regional development pressures on existing
open areas at the fringe of commun ities. By providing financia l or
regulatory incentives to focus development in areas where ade -
quate infrastructure for growth (water, sewer, roads, md the like)
a lr eady exists, lan d at the urban fringe wi ll be under less pressure
for development. Regional development strategies can help coor-
dinate th e efforts of loca liti es and identify opportuniti es for infill
or brownfields development, thereby protecting land at the urban
fringe to benefit a ll .
T h e state of Wisconsin supports regional planning to ease devel-
opment pressures on fringe areas by providing state fund in g pri-
ority to loca l governments that address the needs of adjacent com-
munities in their development plans, instead of just pursuing
parochial interests.13 In 1998, the state of Maryland issued legis la-
tion for priority funding areas that directs state funds to munici-
palities and oth er ex isting communities, industrial areas , and
planned growth areas. 14 This legis lation all ows the state and loca l
governments to target where economic development and new
growth wi ll occur.
5·
Adopt a green infrastructure plan.
A forma l green infrastructure plan provides a framework for
future growth by prioritizing wh at open space should be protect-
ed and w h at open space s h ould be avai lab l e to development.
Conventiona l practice n ow large ly designates whatever open
spaces are remaining for preservation after buildings and roads are
developed. Converse ly, a green infrastructure plan wou ld identify
and protect critica l eco logical sites and linkages in advance of
planning and construction of infrastructure and development of
la nd . In so doing, not only are va lu ab le natural resources pre-
served, but recurring project-level decisions about conservation
ca n be avo id ed by identifying targeted sites compreh ensive ly and
early in the green infrastructure plan. According to the Green
Infrastructure Working Group, a coalition of nonprofit organiza-
tions and local, state and federal governments, green infrastruc-
ture is "the nation's natural life support system-a strategically
planned and managed network of wi lderness, parks, greenways,
conservation easements, and working lands with conservation
value . This network supports native species , maintains natural
ecologica l processes, sustains air and water resources, and con-
tributes to the health and quality of life for America's communi -
ties and people."';
Identifying and planning for prior ity conservation areas prior to
development is critica l because of the high cost of restoration and
the difficulty of creating man-made systems to mimic natural
processes (e.g., water fi ltration). When development is already
present, a green infrastructure plan can he lp communities to set
priorities for restoring areas and linking them to other open
spaces.
6.
Create a network of trails and greenways.
To maximize the utility of green spaces, communities must ensure
that trails and greenways form a continuous network of pathways
for biking, running, or cross-country skiing through a region.
Trails and greenways are protected corridors of open space that
allow for a multifaceted approach to land conservation and park
planning by serving both recreational and conservation functions.
Forming an intercormected network of trai ls and greenways not
on ly ensures stronger corridors for animal migration, but it can
also make these valuable resources more accessib le to the region's
residents.
PRESERVE OPEN SPACE , FARMLAND , NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL EN VIRON MENTAL AREA S Ill
In Dane County, Wisconsin, for example, the open -space plan
strives to faci litate the linking of public lands and trai ls of various
po litical jurisdictions among communities and popu lation centers
to amplify the availability and recreational use of these lands. 16
Other communities have chosen to take action at the state level.
In 1990, a Maryland executive order created a statewide natural
infrastructure by protecting and connecting important natural
corridors throughout the state. Since then, Maryland has protect-
ed over 900 m iles of greenway corridors, with 200 more mi les
currently being built, and has identified 1,000 miles as potential
greenways, many of which can be used for recreation. Most of the
current land is publicly owned, but numerous easements are
being placed on private properties to enhance the growing net-
work of corridors.
7·
Design and implement an information-gathering and educa-
tion program.
Gathering information on tl1e status of land use and environmen-
ta l characteristics throughout a region is a critical component for
determining which lands are more important to preserve and
which lands can be deve loped with minimal impacts to tl1e envi-
ronment. Information collected should include data on issues
such as land ownership, protected areas, biod iversity needs, exist-
ing infrastructure, floodplains, s h orel ands, wetlands, ground
water recharge areas, and prime agricultura l areas.
An inventory of a region's environmental characteristics and land
uses can help identify critical areas for open-space preservation.
For examp le, a compreh ensive mapping project in Austin, Texas,
showed that proposed housing would negatively affect the city's
PRACTICE TIP:
Former r ailroad cor r idors provid e
an ide a l opportunity for many
communities to build a series of
t r ial s and greenw ay s. Sin ce
1960, i t is es tima ted t ha t 11,000
m i l es of r a i l l ine s h ave been
used to cr eate tra i ls and recre -
ational netw orks. The Rail s to
Tr a il s Co ns erv a ncy provide s
technical ass istance to communi -
ties interested in using their r ai l-
r oad net w orks fo r r ecrea t i on .
Fo r more infor ma t i on , g o to
www. rai lstrai ls.or g.
PRACTICE TIP:
Fo r mor e in fo r mation on g reen
i n f r as t r uct ure planning, see
www.gre eninfras t ru cture.n et.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
The use of geo g raph i c informa-
tion systems (GIS) has become a
powerful tool for prese r ving open
space . GIS is a computer-based
tool fo r mapping and an alyzing
l and us e a nd enviro n mental
t rends. GIS can help localiti es
analyze di fferent types of data by
allowing communit ies to "over-
lay" maps of new housing devel -
opments, for example, with maps
of the region's watersheds . As a
result, the data can identify gaps
i n area s in need of preservation
and demonstrate the relation ships
between ecosystems and human-
induced changes to the environ -
ment.
PRACTICE TIP:
For more information, visit the
Am erican Farml and Tr ust's web-
site at www.farmland .org .
drinking water aquifer. The city then decided to direct its public
transportation and park investments in a less environmentally
sensi rive area in East Austin.17
Chicago Wilderness, an organization that is dedicated to protect-
ing and managing the natural communities in the Chicago region,
developed an atlas of important natural resources and features in
the metropolitan Chicago area.18 This atlas was instrumental in
the development of its Biodiversity Recovery Plan, which provid-
ed a long-term vision for the preservation of the area's biological
resources.
8.
Design and implement zoning tools that preserve open space.
Communities across the United States have successfully used zon-
ing to preserve natural resources throughout a region . One com-
mon technique is cluster development zoning. This technique
allows the same overall amount of development that is already
permitted but requires that the development be placed on on ly a
portion of the parcel, thereby retaining the balance as open space.19
Clustering can protect resources such as environmentally sensi-
tive areas, forests, and h istoric sites, by allowing h igher concen-
trations of development on a smaller portion of land, which leaves
large plots of land as permanent open space.
Another technique is the use of incentive zoning. The town of
Cedarburg, Wisconsin, has added language to its zoning codes
that allows builders to create a greater number of lots than nor-
mally allowed in a development in exchange for dedicating addi-
tional open space. Under the ordinance, developers are permitted
to increase the number of lots by up to 20 percent in exchange for
clustering the development and preserving the balance as unde-
veloped open space .20
9·
Provide mechanisms for preserving working lands.
The preservation of prime farm and ranch land deserves special
attention for a variety of reasons . Most of the land that is under
the greatest development pressure is prime farmland that sur-
rounds metropolitan areas-termed "prime" because this farm-
land consists of the finest soils, requires the least amount of chem-
ical or irrigation inputs, or is in greatest proximity to markets or
transportation networks. Farmland also warrants special efforts to
protect it because it demands less in public services than develop-
ment, thereby serving as a net loca l tax contributor.
Agricultural districts can be used to support and protect the local
agricultura l economy from the pressure of urbanization and sec-
ond-home deve lopment.2 1 They do this by primarily excluding
inhospitable land uses, such as suburban development, and ensur-
ing a critical mass of farmland to support needed agricul tural
infrastructure (e.g ., distribution channels, equipment supplies,
etc.). Agricultural districts can be made more effective by adopt-
ing a hybrid approach to farmland protection that includes market
mechanisms to preserve farm l an d.22 Places such as Lancaster
County, Pennsylvania, and Marin County, California, have com-
bined agricultural districts and the purchase of agricultural con-
servation easement programs (PACEs) to great success. T h ese
approaches work by using agricultural districts to protect farm-
land in the near term, while funding is raised through a PACE
program to purchase the land easements over time.
Otay Ranch in Chula Vista, California, uses a network of recreation trails to
connect its neighborhoods.
IO.
Partner with nongovernmental organizations to acquire and
protect land.
Foundations, land trusts, and other public and nonprofit entities
often have a fundamen t al interest in preserving spa ce of natural,
cultural, or historic value .23 Such entities can be particularly help -
ful with building coalitions, assisting on land-use legislation, and
making policy recommendations to communities. Local govern-
ments should support these organizations through funding and
efforts to improve civic awareness about their mission.
In addition, these organizations can help with the acquisition of
open space. Land trusts operate at the local and regional level to
acquire and protect land of significant ecological, open space,
recreational, and historical value. According to the Land Trust
Alliance, there are 1,200 land trusts at work in the United States.
Land trusts can save open space in ways, and at speeds, not always
possible for governments . For example, organizations such as the
Trust for Public Land (TPL) and the Nature Conservancy can act
as intermediate brokers for land acquisition, by purchasing prop-
erty, conveying it to the local jurisdiction, and then waiting for
local funding to come through.24 For example, the city of Tucson,
f
~
PRESERVE OPEN SPACE , FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS II
~ Arizona, asked TPL to buy a scenic mountain tract overlooking f downtown, which was being offered for sale by a savings and loan.
City officials intended to include the costs of the property in the
next budget, but legally they could not commit the funds. The
trust purchased the property for the city and was reimbursed dur-
ing the next budget cycle.
The nonprofit status of land trusts and some other nongovern-
mental organizations also allows landowners to receive tax breaks
when they sell their property below market value.
Economic & Planning Systems, Regiona l Economic Analysis , Trends, Year
2000 & Beyond, (Berkeley, Calif.: Economic & Planning Systems, 2000).
J ohn L. Crompton, Lisa L. Love, and Thomas A. More, "An Empirical
Sni dy of the Role of Recreation, Parks, and Open Space in Companies'
(Re)Location Decisions ," Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 15 ,
no. 1 (199 7): 37-58.
3 In Salem, Oregon, land adjacent to a g reenbelt was found to be worth
about $1,200 per acre more than land onl y 1,000 feet away. Elizabeth
Brabec, On the Value of Open Spaces, Technical Information Series, vol. 1,
no. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Scenic America, 1992), 5.
4 For example, one snidy found that New Jersey commuruties would save
$1.3 billion in infrastrucnire costs over 20 yea rs by avoiding unplanned
sprawl development. For details, see Center for Urban Policy Res ea rch at
the Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Rutgers,
The State University of New Jers ey, The Costs and Benefits of Alternative
Growth Patterns: The Impact Assessment of the New Jersey State Plan
(Brunsw ick, NJ: Rutgers, 2000).
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
For exa mpl e, the cost to New York City of building a filtration pl ant, if
upstate waters hed land s were developed and thei r associated waste treat-
ment ecosyste m service was lost, was estimated at $6 to $8 billion. T hi s is
sign ifi ca ntl y hi gher t han the cost of buying and preserving the watershed
lan d s, estimated at $1.5 billion. Steve Lerner and William Poole, The
Econom ic Benefits of Parks and Ope11 Space: How La11d Co11s ervation H elps
Co1111111miti es Gro w S11lart and Protect the Bottom Li11e (\Nas hin gton , D .C.:
Trust for Public Land, 1999).
Phyllis Myers and Robert Puentes, Growth at the Ballot Box: Electing the
Shape of Conmmnities in November 2000 (\Nas hin gton, D.C.: Brookings
In stitution , Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, 200 1).
Edwa rd Thompson, telephone conversatio n with a uth or, 4 December
200 1.
8 Robert Marriott, Charles Loehr, and Karl Moritz, Managing Growth with
Perfon11a11ce Standards in Mo11tgo111e1y County, Mary land, Planners Advisory
Set-vice, no. 461 (C hi cago, Ill.: Ameri ca n Planning Assoc iation , 1996), L 9-
2 I.
www.state.nj.us/pinelands/density.htm.
10 www .gove rn o r.state.ut.us/planning/CriticalLands/white.htm#lnuoduction .
11 www.d nr.state.mcl.us/pos .hunl.
12 www.ci.boulder.eo .u s/ope nspa ce/.
13 Cynthia Nickerson, "Smart Growth : Impli cations fo r Agriculture in
U rb an Fringe Areas," Agricultural Outlook, April 200 I (\Nas hin gto n, D.C.:
U.S. D epa rtm e nt o f Agriculture, Economic Research Service , 200 1), 27.
Ava il ab le o n line at
www.ers.usda.gov/publications/agoutlook/april2001/ A02 80g.pclf.
14 www.op.state.mcl.us/smartgrowth/smartpfa.htm.
15 www.greeninfrastructure.net/Inuo/Mission-WorkingGroup.htm.
16 www.co .cl ane.wi.us/parks/open %20space/body.hun#past_p lans.
17 Kathy Blaha and Peter Harnik, Opportu11ities Joi' Smmter Gro wth: Parks,
Greenspace and Land Conservation, Translation Paper no. 3 (Miam i: Funders
Network for Smart Growth and Livable Communities, 2000), 6 .
18 www .co.da ne.wi.us/parks/parkh ome.htm .
19 Randall Arendt, "'O pen Space Zoning': \Nhat I t I s and Why It Works,"
Planning Co111111issioners Journal, no. 5 (1992): 4. Avai lab le at www.planner-
sweb.com/articles/areO 15 .htm l.
20 Dan Benson, "M _otlvati ng Developers to M.ai ntain Countryside,"
Milwrmkee Journal Sentinel, I 0 Ma rch 200 1.
21 Tom Daniels and Deborah Bowers, Holding our Ground Protecting America's
Fanm and Fan11land (\Nas hin gton , D.C.: I sland Press, 1997).
22 Edward T'hompson , Agricultural Sustainability and S11ta1't Gro wth: Saving
Urban Influenced Fmwland, Translation Paper no. 5 (Miami: Funders
Network for Smart Growth and Livable Communities, 200 1). Avai lable
o n lin e at www.funde rsnetwork.org/usr _doc/agricu lture%20paper%2 .pelf.
13 Joh n B. Wright, "La nd Trusts in the USA," Lt111tl Use Policy, vo l. 9, (A pril
1992): 83
24 H aro ld Henderson, "Open Space : H ow to Get It and Keep It." Planning,
vo l. 4, no. 9 (November 1990): 5-6.
Chapte1' Se v en
Strengthen and Direct
Development Towards Existing
Communities
D uring the post-War World II era, urban
communities that experienced rapid
expansion at their edges often witnessed disin-
vestment in the urban core and first-ring sub-
urbs as they were abandoned for newer, low-
density, dispersed developments on the urban
fringe. This pattern of development had dra-
matic effects on the social and economic viabili-
ty of many core jurisdictions . It also led to
significant impacts on the natural environment
by developing on formerly open lands, which
reduced animal habitats, degraded water
resources and water quality, and influenced
transportation choices that over time d egraded
air qual ity and increase d the threat of global
climate change.1 Communities are now ques-
tioning the economic a nd environmental
rationale of abandoning neighborhoods, side-
$MA RT GROWTH
NETWORK
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
walks, and water and sewer services in the urban center and older
suburbs, only to rebuild them further out.
Smart growth directs development towards communities already
served by infrastructure, seeking to utilize the resources that
existing neighborhoods offer and to maintain the value of public
and private investment. By encouraging development in existing
areas, communities benefit from a stronger tax base, closer prox-
imity of jobs and services, increased efficiency of already devel-
oped land and infrastructure, reduced development pressure in
fringe areas, and preservation of farmland and open space. In
addition, the process of increasing development in existing com-
munities can maximize the use of existing impervious surfaces,
thereby improving local and regional water quality, and can create
opportunities for more transportation options, which lower vehi-
cle miles traveled and ultimately improve regional air quality.
Often existing neighborhoods can accommodate much of the
growth that communities require through infill development,
brownfields redevelopment, and the rehabilitation of existing
buildings. For example, a 1996 study found that brownfields in
Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee, and Cleveland could absorb one to
five years of residential development, 10 to 20 years of industrial
development, or 200 to 400 years of office space .2
However, there are a number of barriers that discourage develop-
ment in existing communities, some of which include detailed
zoning plans , government policies and regulations, and taxpayer
subsidies that encourage development in edge and greenfield
areas. In addition, greenfield development remains attractive to
developers for its ease of access and construction, lower land
costs, and potential for larger parcel assembly. Typical zoning
requirements in edge areas are often easier to comply with,
because these areas often have few existing building types that
new construction must complement and a relative absence of resi-
dents who may object to the inconvenience or disruption caused
by new construction. Finally, the cost of greenfield development is
often subsidized by the public sector through the provision of
road, sewer, and water networks and through the use of average -
cost pricing, which can underestimate the true per-unit cost of
expans10n.
A range of options exists to begin to "level the playing field"
between greenfield and infill development and to help direct new
investment dollars to strengthen existing neighborhoods. Efforts
to increase development in existing communities must be imple-
mented with an eye to creating growth that improves the quality
of life for existing residents as well as creates benefits for new
investors. As more developers learn of the profitable experiences
that their counterparts have had through infill development, the
private market will increasingly identify ways to redirect resources
to existing neighborhoods. The following policies are designed to
address some of these issues and to provide state and local govern-
ment officials with ideas and tools to strengthen and direct devel-
opment toward existing communities.
I.
Strengthen state or local brownfields programs.
It is estimated that as many as 500,000 brownfields exist nation-
wide.3 Brownfields are those sites with real or perceived environ-
mental contamination. In existing communities, brownfields rep-
resent untapped development opportunities and often act as
impediments to community revitalization. Uncertainty about the
extent of environmental damage, the cost of remediation, and the
risk of liability for future owners often serve as obstacles to new
investment for site owners, developers , and lenders and can fur-
ther serve to drive new development to less problematic sites on
the urban fringe.
Brownfields programs can help make these parcels avai lab le for
redevelopment. In order t o encourage brownfields redevelop-
ment, n early all states h ave developed legislation that liillits and
clarifies the li ability of prospective purchasers, lenders, property
owners, and others r egarding their association with activities at a
brownfi e lds site. In addition, many communities have created
state or local brownfields coordinator positions whose function is
to coor dinate information about sites, facilitate site assessme n ts,
market th e sites to potential deve lopers, and coordinate remedia-
tion efforts with the state e n vironmenta l protection agency. In
states and cities that already have estab li sh ed a brownfields pro-
gra m , these efforts can be strengthen ed to increase the effective-
ness of existing programs, improve coordination with other play-
ers in the brownfields arena, improve remediation efforts, and
PRACTICE TIP:
The St. Paul Port Authority brownfields redevelopment program in
Minnesota has over 5 0 sites needing redevelopment. Because of scarce
resources, the Port Authority determines which sites to remediate based on
the extent of redevelopment costs, the site configuration, and a variety of
social indicators, such as the level of unemployment, housing vacancies, and
percentage of rental property. The redeveloped land is given to businesses,
which enter into an agreement with the Port Authority to retain businesses
in and attract others to St. Paul. Agreements also include design criteria
relating to energy efficiency, local hiring guarantees for St. Paul residents,
and livable working wages. The program is a success: the Port Authority has
three or four businesses competing for each available opening. This program
has generated over $2 million a year in property taxes, created over 1,500
jobs in distressed communities, and created 900,000 square feet of building
space in previously abandoned lots.
STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES m
better leverage support from high-level officia ls and executives to
spur successful brown fields redevelopment.
2.
Adopt a "fix-it-first" policy that sets priorities for upgrading
existing facilities.
Public expe nditures on infrastructure, such as streets, highways,
wa ter and sewer systems, lighting, and sc h ools and other civic
build.in gs, constitute a signifi cant sha r e of public expenditures
each year. Local and state governments suggest locationa l priori-
ties for new development when governments a ll ow in frastructure
in existing neighborhoods to decay whil e investing in new infra-
structure in edge communities. By not fixing this infrastructure,
the loca l government creates for itself a larger fisca l problem for
eac h year that the maintenance issues are not addressed. For
example, a h ome owner spends time and money performing rou-
tine maintenance on a h ouse in order to save money on costly
repairs later and may expand or a lter the house to better meet
changing fami ly needs. T h e maintenance and the expansion the
home owner performs over time maxiillizes the va lu e of the initial
investment (i.e ., the home) and is often less expensive than buying
a new h ome. "Fix-it-first" policies app ly the same rationa le to
public investments. T h ey direct r esources to support the mainte-
nance and upgrading of existin g structures and facilities. T hi s
helps to maintain t h e va lu e of
investments made by the private
sector and to better position
communities to attract private
investment in new construction
and rehabilitation.
New infill townhomes on the site
of a former hospital complement
building styles in the surrounding
U Street area of Washington, DC.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
Current state o r federal funding formulas may make this difficu lt
to imp lemen t, h owever. As with school construction, projects to
repair existing assets that exceed a target level (some percentage
of t h e cost of new construction) may be rejected in favor of new
construction. States h ave, how ever, fo und the political wi ll to
overcome these barriers. New J ersey, for example, acted on the
fix-it-first principle by requiring that maintenance needs on exist-
ing roads be addressed before new roads are constructed. Then-
Governor Christine Todd Whitman committed $30 billion over
12 years for ex tensive repairs to the state's highways and tran sit
infrastructure, improvements in hi ghway and pedestrian safety,
and new rail initi atives to spur regional mobil ity. The rationale
behind this initiative was the economic, socia l, and environmental
costs of allowing current infrastructure to further degrade. As
PRACTIC E TI P:
Wisconsin , in considering its implementation of a regional tax-base sharing
system, studied the experience of the Minnesota Twin Cities region . The
model used in the Twin Cities collects 40 percent of the growth in its com -
mercial and industrial property tax base since 1971 into a single pool. It
then distributes that pool of money to each community in the region that
has a lower than average commercial and industrial tax base.
By participating in this plan, communities have less incentive to compete
with one another for economic development opportunities. Wisconsin
noted, however, that the weakness of the Twin Cities approach is that it
relies on increases in the tax base since 1971, rather than on the total
value of these properties, and that it fails to include residential
properties, thereby creating disproportionate benefits for high-value
residential areas without commercial or industrial activities. For more
information on this program, please see the following website :
www. lafol lette . wisc.edu /reform /lssues(Tax -Base _Sharing_ Mode I .htm.
Governor W hitm a n said,
"We've delayed fixi n g or replac-
ing [our transportation infra-
s tructure] for t oo l ong. We're
fast approac hin g the danger
point."
3·
Institute regional tax-base
sharing to limit regional com-
petition and to support schools
and infrastructure throughout
the region.
T h e fiscal concerns of individual
jurisdictions can create an
intense local competition across
regions t o attract more retai l,
entertainment, and hotel devel-
opment, and less housing development. The revenues generated
by the property tax on housing usually fai l to cover the fu ll costs
of providing public services at all but the hi ghest income levels.
Conversely, retai l and service development generates sa les tax rev-
enue that lands directly in local coffers because most state laws
redirect tax proceeds to the jurisdiction wh ere the sa le takes place.
The bidding wars that often ensue between jurisdictions lead
them to offer a wide array of tax breaks and incentives for incom-
ing businesses.+ When one community underwrites a new mall
with costly incentives like undeveloped land, tax discounts, or
road projects, other communities in tl1e same region are forced to
offer incentives of an equa l sca le to their malls in order to remain
competitive . This type of regional competition can spur develop-
ment at the edge, because in most cases, the new mall or retail
outlet will use undeveloped land s, thu s requi rin g new roads, in fra -
structure, a nd larger parce ls for construction. In addition, this
competition creates fiscal inequiti es between the communi ties
that succeed in attracting businesses and tl1ose that do not or can-
not.
Regional tax-base sharing all ows the revenues co ll ected (most
often property tax assess m ents or sa les tax revenues) to be distrib-
uted both to the locality wh ere they were generated and to other
loca liti es in the region based on their size, population, or otl1er
measures of disparity. Tax-base sharing recognizes tl1at interjuris-
dictional competition for economic activity is, over time, a losing
proposition for all the governments involved. Tax-base shari n g
recognizes that both the causes and tl1e benefits of growth tend be
regional. T h e use of this tool can, for examp le, en sure that all area
sc h ools are working together to provide a well-trained workforce
for the next wave of economic expansion. It also distributes the
benefits of regiona l retail, for examp le, among the many localities
t h at provide custome rs, thereby helping to generate tax revenues .
This approach creates stronger resources across the entire region
and can provide critical to strengthen existing commw1ities that
ma y suffer from disinvestment or stagnant economic growth. By
minimizing regional competition for large commercial projects
and business, such as ma ll s and corporate headquarters, tax-base
sharing can ensure that new development occurs where it makes
the most sense, not for the sole purpose of raising the tax ba se of
one jurisdiction.
States have employed different approaches to this basic concept.
In Minnesota, for exa mple, business property taxes a re shared
among Minneapolis -St. Paul area governments, eas ing the fiscal
crisis in the area's declining communities. Tax-base sharing also
relieves the pressure that growing communities feel to spread
loca l debt costs through growth, and it erodes fiscal incentives
that encourage low-density development.5 Texas also offers a vari-
ation on tax sharing in which districts with high-value business
property are given five options to share resources. These include
directly sharing their property tax revenues with other districts,
or agreeing to send surplus revenues to the state for distribution
to poor school districts .6 In Colorado, the neigh boring towns of
Windsor and Severance have agreed to share reven ues from com -
mercia l activity along their shared High way 392 corridor, thus
saving each town from the cost and effort of attempts to draw
businesses into its jurisdiction at tl1e expense of its neighbor.7
4·
Use the split-rate property tax to encourage development on
vacant or blighted pieces of land in existing communities.
Property tax structures tha t assess land and improvements in the
same way can act as an impediment to upgrading existing struc-
tures or adding buildings to currently vacant infi ll parce l s.
STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES II
Owners ma y perceive the increased taxable basis on their proper-
ty-and the t ax liability that results-to exceed the economic
value that could be derived from improving th e property. As a
result, vacant or underutilized land remains that way until the
economics of potential improvements change, which encourages
specu la tion. This is particu larly problematic in areas suffering
from disinvestment where the prospects for profitable investment
by businesses are lower and where concentrations of underuti-
lized property can exacerbate deterioration and neglect.
The sp lit-rate property tax shifts the ba lance of the tax burden
onto land and away from improvements, which diminishes tl1e tax
consequences associated with making improve ments on the land.
It also raises the tax consequences associated with leaving vacant
land dormant. Under a spl it-rate tax , there is more incentive for
building owners to put their land to maximum productive use
(within the constructs of building and zoning requirements). The
split-rate tax thus stimulates development on lots that had previ-
ously acted as obstacles to redevelopment in existing neighbor-
hoods .
5·
Locate civic buildings in existing communities rather ~han in
greenfield areas.
Public investment in civic buildings, including h istoric structures,
can be a critical factor in the development of a community. The
place ment of pub lic and civic buildings indicates the loca lity's
deve lopment priorities, and pl acement determines the residents'
accessibi lity to the government services that these buildings
house . Furthermore, a range of private services, such as legal and
PRACTICE TIP:
A num b er of localities in
Pennsylvania use the split-rat e
property tax . In the case of
Pittsburgh where improvements
were once taxed at one -half the
rate of land, this ratio shifted to
only one-sixth the rate of ta x
asse ssed on land under the split-
rate tax reform. The results have
been significant. An analy sis pub-
1 ished in the National Tax Journal
in March 1997 reve aled that, in
spite of the dramatic economic
effects associated with the down -
tu rn in the steel industry, the rate
of development within Pittsburgh
was sub stantially greater com-
pared to other rust-belt cities that
used a t raditional property tax .
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
Northwest Landing -a 3,000 acre
mixed-use community --was con-
structed on an abandoned brown-
field industrial site near Dupont ,
Washington.
advocacy services, benefit from close proximity to public build-
ings, such as courthouses and legislative chambers.
By locating public buildings (e.g., libraries, government buildings,
and schools) in areas with existing infrastructure, state and local
governments send a message to the rest of the community that
these areas are worthwhile investment opportunities. Public
buildings act as harbingers of revitalization in distressed commu-
nities where few employment opportunities exist or where a lack
of services persists. Finally, they represent opportunities to go
beyond merely maintaining the quality of public services in a
community by adding services that were previously unavailable or
inaccessible to local residents . The federal government recognizes
the importance of the location of public-service buildings. In
growing recognition of the important role that civic buildings
play in the development of communities, federal legislation was
introduced in the 107th Congress that placed a greater emphasis
on the location of post office buildings in core downtown busi-
ness districts.
6.
Conduct an "infill checkup" to evaluate and prioritize infill and
brownfields sites for redevelopment.
Infill locations pose a number of challenges to prospective devel-
opers that greenfield locations do not. Perceptions and realities
'
about community opposition, environ-
mental contamination, the difficulty of
f land assembly, access to the site, I requirements for design conformity, and
infrastructure service standards may dis-
courage development that is needed to
strengthen existing communities .
Communities can attract infill invest-
ment by identifying priority sites for redevelopment-those that
are likely to convey the greatest economic, environmental, or
fiscal benefits-and then removing the obstacles that are prevent-
ing investment from taking place there.
Communities can be proactive in addressing these concerns by
doing an "infill checkup" in which answers to the following criti-
cal questions are identified:8 Is the community ready to accept
infill, and what are likely to be residents' greatest concerns? Does
the comprehensive plan (and applicable zoning code) include infill
in its long-term vision, and do corollary public investments in
infrastructure support it? Are efforts made to ensure that infill is
constructed within the community's character? Does the commu-
nity have a transit system or are plans in place, and what are the
implications for parking needs associated with new development?
Is the community prepared to invest financially in infill where pri-
vate investment alone is not enough to cover the costs of develop-
ment? Does the zoning support, encourage, allow, or prohibit
mixed-use, and what is needed for it to better support current
needs? Finally, are design guidelines or project prototypes in place
that clarify the community's priorities for what development
should look like? Answering these questions and implementing
the needed changes to overcome any obstacles that appear as a
result can ease the way for the redevelopment of critical infill and
brownfields sites.
7·
Facilitate programs to encourage home renovation and reha-
bilitation in existing neighborhoods.
Rehabilitation of existing homes represents a fundamental
approach to strengthening existing neighborhoods. Communities,
by creating tools and incentives for home owners to upgrade their
own homes, can bring about visible new improvements in their
STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES II
8. neighborhoods. Such too ls also allow residents to adapt their
homes to changing needs and to remain in place as a long-term
stabilizing force in the community. Furthermore, rehabilitation
and renovation represent large and generally stable parts of the
loca l economy, particularly during slower economic periods.
Support community-based organizations involved in revitaliz-
ing neighborhoods.
Communities seeking to encourage home renovation and upgrad-
ing can provide grants, low-cost loans, tax abatements, or other
incentives to home owners for rehabilitating their properties.
Communities may also consider evaluating current building codes
to ensure that they constitute a reasonable approach to ensuring
safety in all building types . New Jersey found, for example, that
its bui l ding codes made renovation of older properties often
infeasible and adopted a building subcode that applies specifically
to rehabilitation (see Principle 3, Po licy 8 for more information).
The cost of redeveloping land and bui ldings is not only driven by
the cost of materials and labor-it is also influenced by the deve l-
oper's profit motive. In communities around the country, thou-
sands of local community development corporations (CDCs) or
other community-based organizations (CBOs) function as devel-
opers of residential and commercial property with no profit
motive . As a result, these organizations are able to create viable,
affordable projects, by using public, private, and in-kind contribu-
tions, that would otherwise remain absent from the community's
building stock. These nonprofits have vast expertise in develop -
ment at the neighborhood or block level. They are o~en capable
PRACTICE TIP:
Cuyahoga County, Ohio , has employed a widely available yet underused strategy for investing county tax proceeds to
assist suburban home owners near the central ci ty (Cleveland) to rehabilitate their homes-linked deposits . As author-
ized by law, the county treasurer invests up to 10 percent of total property tax intake in participating banks at below-
market rates (not to exceed a 3 percent differential). In exchange, the banks must commit to pass on the savings to bor-
rowers in the form of low-interest loans for rehabilitation and renovation . It is estimated that county treasurers in as
many as two-thirds of all states have this authority, making it a potentially enormous untapped resource for revitaliz ing
neighborhoods and improving housing quality.
Cuyahoga County's "Housing Enhancement Loan Program" is available to any home owner-regardless of income-
res iding i n a suburb close to Cleveland in which housing values have appreciated at less than two percent annually over
the last 15 years. By foregoing between $1.2 and $2 million in interest, it is estimated that the county will make avail -
able roughly $40 million to upgrade 4,000 homes over two years. As a result, residents of existing neighborhoods are
able to adapt and upgrade their homes for changing needs. This program thus creates less demand for new housing con-
struction on the urban fringe. New capital is flowing into existing neighborhoods that would otherwi se appreci ate slowly
or not at all. The county wins, too. Property tax assessments are expected to increase by $400,000 per year as a resu lt
of the imp r ovements.
of putting together complex
financia l development deals-
involving as many as a dozen or
more financial sources-that few
profit-minded developers are
willing to undertake .
Support for these community
organizations in the form of
financial resources, technical
assistance, or time on the civic
agenda of decision makers
ensures that public resources are
used for cost-efficient and civic-
minded projects. This support
improves the chances that public
resources are used in projects
that demonstrate a community's
PRACTICE TIP:
Nat iona l Neighbo r hood Co alition,
a members h i p or g a ni zation of
CDC s and CBOs work in g on a
r ange of iss ues , ha s developed ten
Ne igh bor hood Principles fo r
Sma r t Gr owth . The se p r inc i ples
complement those of the Smart
Gro wth Network and are tai lored
to spe ak t o the n ee d s a nd
r eso u rce s of com muni t y-ba sed
or ganization s. To le arn more, visi t
www. neighbo r hood coal i t i on .org.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
The formerly abandoned Standard
Dairy in Portland, Oregon's historic
Eliot neighborhood now contains 64
live-work or live-retail spaces that
evoke the foursquare home design
popular in the city in the early
1900's.
own development priorities. CDCs and other CBOs are often
responsive and accountable to community members in a way that
few other entities are. Board members and staff of these
nonprofits often live in the neighborhoods themselves, thereby
ensuring that the activities that the organization seeks to com-
plete help to achieve an improved quality of life for all residents
of the neighborhood.
9·
Create economic incentives for businesses and home owners
to locate in areas with existing infrastructure.
Public invesu11ent is often able to leverage private invesunent. In
some cases, public investment may provide the necessary infra-
structure to attract desired development. Additional economic
incentives may be necessary, however, to help the business and
development community focus its attention on a given, targeted
neighborhood. This has been the experience with the successful
model s for zone and district development, such as business
improvement districts, historic districts, Main Street programs,
and the federal government's Empowerment Zone/Enterprise
Community programs.
There are a wide range of economic in centives that can be made
available to developers and property owners . For example, com-
munities can offer favorable lending terms through dedicated
bond issues; direct grants or loans through tax-increment financ-
ing or from special assessments; tax abatements, credits, or
waivers; density bonuses or other zoning waivers; expedited per-
mitting treaunent; or outright grants of publicly-owned land or
property. Often these economic incentives can be the missing
source of gap or bridge financing that makes invesunent opportu-
nities in existing neighborhoods viable. Finally, loca l employees
can be enticed to li ve in existing communities near their place of
work through "live near your work" initiatives (see Principle 1,
Policy 1, for more information).
IO.
Modify average cost-pricing practices in utilities to better
account for costs of expanding infrastructure in greenfield
areas.
Low-density, dispersed developments generally enjoy subsidized
utility costs because utility pricing is based on average-rather
than actual-costs of providing services. Average cost pricing was
established as a way to place rural residents on a level playing field
with urban residents, but that policy is now contributing to rapid
land consumption rates because the true costs of providing infra-
structure to edge areas are often not passed on to either the devel-
oper or the final consumer. Cable television, electric, phone,
water, gas, and wastewater services all charge for new hookups on
an average-cost basis. A regional Bell telephone company, for
examp le, estimated that, compared to the cost of serving cus-
to m e rs in th e ce ntral bu sin ess di stri ct, it cos t s twi ce as mu ch to
serve ho useh o ld s in th e r es t o f th e ce ntral city and t en tim es as
mu ch to serve ho useh o lds on the urban frin ge.9 Beca u se a ll cu s-
to m e r s pay ave ra ge cos ts , r es idents in more urban , high er d en sity
area s in e ffec t subs id ize those in e dge areas . Linear u ti lities such
as ca bl e t elevisio n , wa t er and sewer, pho n e se rvic e, and ev en mail
d e li ve ry fa i l to r e fl ec t th e e ffi c ien ci es assoc iat ed with clust e r e d
deve lopm ent.
Co mmuni t i es that ha ve r e c ogni z ed thi s probl e m h av e h a d
diffi cu lty in arri vin g a t a so luti on that is e ffi c ie nt and equitable .
Assess in g th e tru e ma r g in al cos t o f infras tru c ture ex pa n sio n is
difficult , since so me capital inve stments (s uch as sch ools, treat -
m ent fa ciliti es , and pumping stati on s) ca nnot be ex panded on a
sm a ll , in c r e m e ntal b as is. R a th e r, th ey re quire o n e -tim e la r ge
influx es o f ca pital to ex pand th e ca p ac ity fo r b o th current an d
futur e u se r s. Th e city o f San Di ego, howeve r , u se s a diffe rent
a pproac h . It ha s crea ted se r v ice a r eas d es i gn e d fo r impac t-fee
fin a ncin g, in which impac t fees are lowe r for a reas se rv ed by exi st-
in g infrastru c ture a nd hi g h e r fo r th ose w ith o ut. Thi s "st e p "
approac h t o ca lcu lating impac t fees en co urages deve lo pm e nt t o
occur in exi sti n g service areas by o ffering lower impact fees t o the
build er s o f n ew units. C o nver se ly, h igh er fees (th at m o re cl o se ly
app ro xim ate the tru e cos t) di scourage d eve lopm ent in unservic ed
a r eas.
STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES m
U .S . E nvironmen ta l P rotecti on Age n cy, Our Built and Natural
Environments: A Tee/mien/ Review of the Interactions between Land Use,
Transportation , and Env ironmental Quality, EPA 2 3 l -R-0 1-002
(Was hin gton , D.C.: U.S. EPA, 200 1).
Ro be rt A. Simons, Brownfields Supply and Demand Analysis for Se lected Great
Lakes Cities (Cleve land , O hi o : D epa rtment of Pl anni ng an d D eve lo pm ent,
C leve land State U niversity, 1996), pre pared fo r U.S . E nviro nm en ta l
Protecti on Age ncy.
Ro bert A. Sim on s, Turning Brownfields into Greenbacks (Was hin gton , D .C.:
Urban La nd Insti tu te, 1998).
Geoffrey Anderso n , "Local Govern ments o n Safa ri for Bi g Ga me," On
T he Ground: the Multimedia Journa l on Co m111 11nity, Design , and
Environment, vo l. 2, no . 2, (1996).
Myron O r fie ld, Metropolitics: A Regional Agenda for Community and Stabi lity
(Was hin gto n , D .C.: Brooki ngs Institution P ress, 1997).
Ha l Hovey, "The Property Tux in th e 2 1st Centu ry," prepared for
T he F ina nce Project, May 1996 . Ava il ab le at
www.fin anceproject.o rg/pro pe rty.html.
M ichell e Kra me r, Smart Growth Hall of Fame 200 I , (Colo r ado Sp rawl
Ac ti on Center, D ece m be r 200 1).
Sum mari zed fro m Northeast-Mid west Insti tu te and Congr ess fo r the ew
U rb ani sm , Strategies for Successful Infill Development (Was hin gto n , D .C.:
North eas t-Midwest Institute, 200 l ).
U.S . Cong ress, Office of Tec hn o logy Assess ment , The Technologica l
Reshaping of Metropo litan America, (Was hin gton , D .C.: GPO, OTA-ETT-
64 3, 1995).
PRACTICE TIP:
The city of Sacram ento ha s devel -
oped a policy to p r omo t e i nfill
development by providing credits
for sewer hookups so that ho us ing
that i s built in the downtown or
midtown area will be ass es sed
on ly $900 for a sewer hookup fee
(per unit) versu s $3 ,000 in outly-
ing areas.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
Other Resources
• Robert A . Simons, Turning Brownfie lds into Greenbacks (Washington, D.C.:
Urban La nd Institute, 1998).
Diane R. Suchman, Developing Infill Homing in Inner-City Neighborhoods:
Opportunities and Strategies (Washington, D.C.: U r ba n Land Institute,
1997).
Center for Livable Communities, Building Livable Communities: A Policy
Maker's Guide to Infill Development (Sacramento, Ca li f.: Loca l Government
Commission, 1995, 200 1).
• U.S . Environmenta l Protection Agency and Association of Metropol itan
P lanning Organizations (AMPO), Redeveloping Brownfields with Federal
Transportation Funds (Washingto n, D.C.: AMPO, 200 1). Also avai lab le
on lin e at http://smartgrowth.org/pdf/brownfields_tea2 l .pdf.
Chapter Eight
Provide a Variety of
Transportation Options
Providing people with more choices in hous-
ing, shopping, communities, and trans-
portation is a key aim of smart growth.
Communities are increasingly seeking these
choices-particularly a wider range of trans-
portation options-in an effort to improve
overwhelmed transportation systems. Traffic
congestion is worsening across the country.
Whereas 65 percent of travel in 1982 occurred
in uncongested conditions, only 36 percent of
peak travel did so by 1997. In fact, according to
the Texas Transportation Institute, congestion
over the last several years has worsened in near-
ly every major metropolitan area in the United
States.
The science of traffic management and predic-
tion has begun to catch up with what citi zens
AfJ,,~
$MA RT GROWTH
NETWORK
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
Existing infrastructure can support
transit, vehicle, and non-motorized
means of travel.
Photo: Ann Tho~
have observed for years: new road capacity fills up almost as fast
as it is constructed. Known in transportation circles as "induced
demand," studies now show that as large new roads are built peo-
ple increase their driving to take advantage of the new infrastruc-
ture. Some studies suggest that between 60 and 90 percent of new
road capacity is consumed by new driving within five years of the
opening of a major road.1 In the short term, people may switch
from using transit and carpools to traveling on the new road, and
in the long term, with the increased accessibility of the surround-
ing land, development patterns shift to create more growth and
new traffic in the area. In regions around the country, travel fore-
casters show that the continuation of current policies and prac-
tices is unlikely to alleviate congestion.
In response, comm uni ties are
beginning to implement new
approaches to transportation
planning, such as better coordi-
nating land use and transporta-
tion; increasing the availability
of high quality transit service ;
creating redundancy, resiliency
and connectivity within their
transportation networks; and
ensuring connectivity between
pedestrian, bike, transit, and road facilities. In short, they are cou-
pling a multimodal approach to transportation with supportive
land-use patterns that create a wider range of transportation
options.
Numerous policies are available to expand transportation choices,
and a number of them are featured in this section as a means to
help communities identify opportunities to enhance their trans-
portation network. Like the others presented in this document,
these policies are best used in combination with parallel policy
efforts to support other aspects of smart growth.
I.
Finance and provide incentives for multimodal transportation
systems that include supportive land use and development.
States are responsible for much of the nation's transportation
planning and investment. As a result, states can directly affect the
mix of transportation modes available by planning and funding a
balanced portfolio of pedestrian, auto, transit, and bike trans-
portation facilities. The effectiveness of tl1ese investments howev-
er, is greatly dependent upon the existence of supportive land
uses. For instance, sidewalks without nearby destinations render
walking an unrealistic option; transit servicing of low-density
areas is expensive, and land uses that separate residential develop-
ment from jobs and shopping increase congestion.
States can improve the cost-effectiveness of their transportation
investments by ensuring that transportation and development are
coordinated. Project selection criteria should give priority to
those projects that demonstrate supportive land uses (e .g., transit
service for areas with transit-oriented development or bikeways
connecting residential areas with shopping and amenities). By
including a commitment for follow-up implementation funds for
the transportation portions of the plan, states can use special grant
programs as catalysts for integrated land-use transportation plan-
ning by local governments. Requirements or incentives for land
planning can be implemented in areas where major expansions or
new facilities are contemplated . States can also offer incentives
and rewards to communities that ensure safe-routes to school and
to communities that locate schools in walkable locations.
Communities can take advantage of the flexibi lity in federal trans-
portation law to create pub lic-private partnerships around trans-
portation and development investments. For example, they can
use transportation funds fo r brownfields redevelopment or take
advantage of joint deve lopment policies to encourage transit-ori-
ented development. Finally, state transportation departments can
encourage their own offices and local governments to adopt poli-
cies that allow flexibility in road, pedestrian, bike, and transit
facility design standards, such that upgrades and new faci lities fit
the character of existing communities.
2.
Modify roadway level-of-service standards in areas served by
transit.
Level-of-service requirements set the leve l of acceptable conges-
tion at an intersection or on a segment of road. Once this level of
PRACTICE TIP:
The Metropolitan Tra ns portation Commi ssion, the metropolitan planning
organization for the San Francisco Bay Area, encourages local govern-
ments to link transportation and land-use decisions through the "Housing
Incentive Program (HIP)." HIP is a grant program designed to maximize
public investments in tran sit infras tructure and to encourage tran sit use
while also addressing the region's housing shortage. For localities that are
locating housing developments with in a one-thi rd mile walk of transit, the
HIP provide s additional funding for transportat ion-related imp r ovements
such as streetscapes , transit vi ll ages , bi cycle facilities, and pede str ian
plazas. As densities increase, HIP provides more funding to the locality:
$1,000 per bedroom in projects that contain twenty-five units per acre,
$1,500 per bedroom at forty units pe r acre, and $2,000 per bedroom at
sixty units per acre. For all affordable units, an addition al $500 per bed-
room is awarded . For more information, visit www .mtc.ca .gov /projects/liv-
PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS m
congestion has been reached, it is common to require that devel-
opment in the surrounding area halt or that the road or intersec-
tion be upgraded. This one-size-fits -all prescription may not fit
all situations. Some of the most lively, economically vital districts
in the country are congested. In many cases, it is a sign of their
vitality, particularly in city and town centers. Sim ilarly, uncon-
gested, fast-moving traffic can be a signal of a downtown or
neighborhood business district in decline. In addition, stringent
adherence to a statewide level -of-service standard may not be
appropriate in areas served by high-quality transit. In these areas,
reliance upon a roadway level-of-service standard fails to reflect
the accessibility offered by the transit service.
For these areas served by transit, some combined measure of
service and accessibility, which includes roadway, transit, and
pedestrian activity, may be needed to properly manage trans-
portation in these areas. Likewise, where transportation improve-
ments are deemed necessary, policies can then evaluate the impact
of upgrades to road, transit, pedestrian facilities, or some combi-
nation thereof.
3·
Plan and permit road networks of neighborhood-scaled streets
(generally two or four lanes) with high levels of connectivity
and short blocks.
Overreli ance on h ierarchical street networks composed of neigh -
borhood, collector, arterial, and freeway roads tends to force
traffic onto a small number of major roads, which provide drivers
with few alternate routes in the event of congestion or accidents.
Also, because major roads concentrate traffic, they generally do
not provide a good environment for pedestrians or residential
PRACTICE TIP:
Th e North Carolina Department
of Tra nspo r tation (NCDOT) ha s
made it easier for local govern-
ments to impl ement traditional
ne ighborhood street networks in
new developments . In Augu st
2000, NCDOT approved street
de sign guidelines to suppo rt com-
munity intere st in streets tha t
s low and disperse vehicula r
traffic and provide a pedestrian -
friendly environment. The guide-
l i nes specify width s, street geom-
etry, utility placement, and provi -
sion of bicycle and pedest r ian
facilities that promote walkable,
human-scaled commun i ties .
For mo r e information see
www.doh.dot.state .nc . us/opera-
tions/tnd .pdf. See also Institute
of Transportation Eng i nee r s'
Trad i tion a l Ne i ghborhood
De velopmen t Street De si gn
Guideli nes, A Recommended
Pract i ce of the Insti tute
o f Tr a nspo rta t i o n Eng i neers
(Washin gto n, D.C .: !TE, 1999).
Ill GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
In Maplewood, New Jers ey, the
Concierg e Company has formed a
partnership with New Jersey
Transit, the Chamber of
Commerce, and the municipal
government to refurbish the tran-
sit station, complete with a "com-
munity concierge " program. Thi s
service provides links to fifty local
businesses like grocery stores, dry
cleaners and auto repair garages
in a center within the train sta-
tion , so that rail commuters can
arrange their daily errands .
development. The result is that these corridors are generally
accessible only by car.
A finely woven network of sma ll er streets can move large volumes
of traffic, provide routing redundancy, and help drivers avoid long
de lays associated with the left turns at large, multilane intersec-
tions. These streets a lso are scaled to the neighborhood level.
Narrower than major roads, such streets generally have slower
speeds that are compatible with a mix of residential, commercial,
and r etai l use s. This mix of uses and improved connectivity makes
wa lki n g a rea li sti c transportation option because destinations can
be placed at closer distances, and more direct routes exist for
pedestrians to reach a given destination. In addition, unlike major
thoroughfares, large setbacks are not n ecessary to shield building
occupants from the n oise assoc iated with la rge vo lum es of fast -
movin g traffic.
4·
Connect transportation modes to one another.
Too often, transportation systems and networks are planned and
operated in an uncoordinated manner-both with in and between
jurisdictions. Providing
efficient connection s
between different modes is
key to achieving a func-
tioning multimodal sys -
tem. For in stance, nearly
every transit trip starts or
ends with a pedestrian trip .
Homes near transit systems
are a critical part of minimiz-
ing congestion and preserving
open space in Gresham,
Oregon .
If the pedestrian fails to connect well with the point of transit
pickup (no sidewalks leading to the stop, long walks, or wide roads
to be crossed), transit is much less convenient, access ibl e, and
competitive. All transportation options become more viable when
they are connected to other modes . For example, bike racks at
transit stations create a wider ridership for transit by effectively
extending the range passengers will travel. However, better sti ll
are transit systems that allow bikes on board because they extend
the area of origin and destination. Similarly, auto trips can be
more effective ly linked with pedestrian transportation when desti-
nations are close to one another a n d wa lkways are provided
between locations.
5·
Zone for concentrated activity centers around transit service.
To be most effective, transit service requires supportive land use .
Local governments can help to ensure good accessibility to transit
by clustering higher-density residential development around u·an-
sit stops. Some researchers estimate that a minimum of six to
eight residential units per acre are needed to support basic transit
service provision . In addition, transit becomes still more effective
if other services and amenities are also co-located with transit.
Such services and amenities include community services such as
childcare, as well as facilities for daily trips such as dry cleaning,
parcel pickup and drop off, and convenience store shopping.
Enabling transit riders to accomplis h multiple errands as part of
their commute is essential if public transit is to become a viable,
convenient transportation option.
6.
Require sidewalks in all new developments.
With the growing dominance of the automobile, many new
streets are built without sidewalks. It is true that the existence of
sidewalks will not create walkers. Other elements (many already
discussed) including mix of uses, short blocks and n ea rby destina-
tions are necessary to make walking anything but recreational.
However, sidewalks are indispensable to this mix. They are essen-
tial to creating a safe and secure pedestrian environment, and
therefore a balanced mix of transportation options. Local govern-
ments can require that new developments provide sidewa lks so
that residents and users of these developments can walk or bike if
they choose (see Principle 4 for more information on walkable
communities).
7·
Address parking needs and opportunities.
Parking-its provision, pricing, and distribution-plays an impor-
tant role in creating a balanced transportation system. The avail-
ability of parking at local destinations influences an individua l 's
choice to drive, walk, bike, or take transit. Parking requirements
affect the financial viability and form of specific development pro-
posals and, in turn, affect the ability of those developments to
play a supporting role in a multimodal transportation system. For
instance, requiring large amounts of parking for a transit-oriented
infill development drives up the cost of the development and may
undermine the ability of the development to support transit.
Parking lots (this one concealed by a
wall and pedestrian pergola) can be
treated with design and landscapi ng to
create a safer, more interest ing ,
pedestrian environment.
PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS II
Communities can affect change in the way parking influences
transportation choices through a range of potential efforts (see
Principle 9, Policy 6 for more information). They may choose to
allow on-street parking to meet parking requirements, or they
may reduce the amount of parking required for infill sites in
mixed-use or transit-oriented areas . They may work with employ-
ers to create priority parking areas and to reduce parking fees for
carpools, allow employees to "cash out" their parking benefits, or
tax as income parking benefits that workers receive . Communities
may encourage developers either to locate parking behind build-
in gs (in garages, especially) or in courtyards rather than in surface
parking lots in front of buildings, or to design surface parking
more like a park, courtyard, or plaza that doubles as public space
in off-peak hours. Jurisdictions may design public parking garages
as mixed-use buildings with storefronts that match neighborhood
commercia l buildings . They may allow loca l businesses to fulfill
their parking requirements by purchasing credits for garage
spaces or by sharing parking if peak hours are different (e.g.,
office buildings and entertainment venues have peak parking
needs at different times). Communities can work to ensure that
parking is located in areas that serve residents and businesses
throughout a district. Finally, parking can be located to allow
drivers to access pedestrian networks once they have parked, so
that they can access a day's worth of activities on foot. These
options are just a few of the many ways that communities can
improve their treatment of parking.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
The U .S . Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and the
U .S. Depa r tment of
Transportation (DOT) have estab-
li shed a voluntary, national stan -
d a rd of excellence for
employe r-p r ovided commuter
benefits . The prog r am encourages
U.S . employers to help employees
get to and from work i n ways
that: cut air pollution , reduce
traffic congestion , increase
employee job satisfaction ,
improve employee recruiting and
retention , reduce parking facility
expenses , reduce employee com-
muting expenses , and cut taxes
for both employers and employ-
ees . Detailed informat ion about
commuter choice and the nation-
al standard of excellence can be
found on EPA's website at
www.epa .gov/otaq/transp/com -
choic/ccweb .htm .
8.
Collaborate with employers and provide information and
incentives for programs to minimize or decrease rush-hour
congestion impacts.
Daily travel patterns are the r esult of thousands of individual trav-
el decisions on the part of community residents. Employers are
one way to reach those individuals and influence these decisions.
Regardless of local and sta te government efforts to manage traffic
more effectively, employers are increasingly finding strong busi-
ness reasons to work with their employees on transportation
issues . Employee retention and lost productivity are just two of
the reasons for employers' interest. In Atlanta, Bell South's con-
cern over its employees' rising commuting difficulties led them to
consolidate more than seventy offices into three locations-each
immediately adjacent to a subway stop.
Local government can p l ay an important role in increasing
employer efforts by providing information and incentives for
employer-sponsored commute options. Subsidies for use of public
transit and employer-assisted housing programs for employees
who live near their jobs can hel p minimize rush hour congestion
by vehicles. Additionally, included in the range of transportation
choices is the option to remain in place . Private employers who
provide opportunities for employees to work at home through
telecommuting, or condense work hours via flex time can facili-
tate this choice.
9·
Adjust ex isting transit servic es to take full advantage of tran-
sit-suppor t ive ne ighborhoods and developments.
Coordinating land use with transit is often considered in the con-
text of future developments and new transit service. However,
powerful opportunities may exist within the context of the current
transit system. Local governments can eva luate existing systems
and relocate routes or stops to ensure that areas with high densi-
ties, good mixes of use, and high-quality pedestrian access are well
served by transit. In addition to locating transit in areas with sup-
portive land uses, local governments can also target transit based
on economic and demographic factors. For instance, neighbor-
hoods with higher percentages of young people, students, and
elderly citizens may yie ld higher riderships, and strategic routing
decisions can help to ameliorate the effects of regional and subre-
gional jobs-housing imbalances. To be most successful, the nature
of commutes and other trips-reverse commutes, weekend service
employee job travel , and entertainment trips-should be consid-
ered to determine timing and fare schedu les.
I O.
Cluster freight facilities near ports, airports , and rail terminals.
E ffi cient manage m en t o f goods m ove m en t within a r egion ca n
h elp re du ce con gestion and crea te h ea lthi er, mo r e li va bl e commu-
niti es. F r e que ntly, fr e ight fac iliti es a r e di s p erse d throu gh out a
r egion and o ffer poor connec ti on s betwee n rail , po rt, and tru ck
mod es of fr eigh t move m ent.
Loca l gove rnme nts ca n en co urage cl u stering and conne ctivity
betwee n modes by (1) des ign a tin g ar eas for fr e ig ht fac ili ty deve l-
o pment, (2) maki n g p ub lic in fras tru cture i nvestm ents to support
m o dal co nnecti on s and improve d fa cility acc essibili ty, and (3) tak-
ing ste ps t o en sure that ce ntrall y located fa cilities and their o pera-
tio n s are compa tibl e with th e broa der co mmuni ty fun cti on and
ch a racte r. T h ese st eps ca n cut sho rt-h aul truck trips a nd imp rove
region a l a ir qu ali ty, b uil d up th e econ o mic co mpe titi ve n ess o f
loca l fr eight enterprises, an d enhan ce co mmunity quali ty o f life
by red u cin g the number o f at-gr ade cross ings and the numbe r o f
loca l tru ck trips with th eir atten da n t no ise and po lluti on .
T hi s smdy looked at the growth in ve hi cle mi les trave led (VMT) as a
res ul t of expa ndi n g highway capacity on the Cali fo rnia state hi ghway sys-
t e m. Mark Han se n a nd Yuanl in Huang, "Road Sup p ly a n d Traffic in
C a lifornia Urban Areas," Tran sportation Research, 3 1, n o. 3 (1997),
205 -218.
PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS II
PRACTICE TIP:
The No r th Jersey Transportation Planning Authority, Inc. (NJTPA) and
the New Jersey Institute of Technology are crafting policy that encourages
the reclamation of brownfields by freight businesses. The goal of the proj-
ect is to make efficient use of no rthern New Jersey's land and transporta-
tion resources and to help reverse the loss of jobs and economic activity in
blighted urban areas . In the region , freight-related businesses are a good
fit for brownfields redevelopment because these businesses require good
transportation access . A large number of brownfields lie within several
mi les of the Newark/Elizabeth transportation hub that includes the marine
port, airport, and major rail terminals . According to NJTPA,
"[a]ttracting freight businesses to brownfields sites would help reduce the
need for long distance trucking of goods , increase rail usage and create
new unskilled and semiskilled jobs in proximity to urban populations with
significant unemployment." For more information see www.njtpa.org/plan-
ni ng /brownfields/inde x .htm. See also The Foundation for Intermodal
Research and Education's products about the metropolitan implications of
"e-fre ight" at http://intermodal.org/FI R E/e-freight.html.
Chapter Nin e
Mal<e Development Decisions
Predictable , Fair and Cost
Effective
F or a community to be successful in imple-
menting smart growth, its vision, objec-
tives, and actions must be embraced by the pri-
vate sector. The private sector is crucial to sup-
plying the large amounts of money and con-
struction expertise needed to meet the growing
demand for smart growth developments. If
investors, bankers, developers, builders, and
others do not earn a profit, few smart growth
projects will be built. Fortunately, government
can help reduce barriers to profitable smart
growth development practices. Since the devel -
opment industry is highly regulated, the value
of property and the desirability of a place are
determined in large part by government invest-
ment in infrastructure and by government reg-
ulation.
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
The ci ty of Au stin , Te xas, offers a
variety of financial incentives to
deve l opers through their Smart
Zone and Smart Matrix Incentive
programs. Developers who build
in desired growth areas and who
include smart growth features in
thei r projects can receive waivers
of development fee s and city sub-
sidie s for the development of
infrastructure such as installation
of water and sewer lines, roads,
s idewalks, and other related
improvements. For more informa-
tion on Au stin 's program see
www. c i. austi n . t x. us /smart-
growth/incentives.htm.
Government investmen t and regulation sh ape the types of devel-
opment that are being created today. For examp le conventional
zo n ing origina ll y used by cities to separate homes from noxious
factories has also served to separate homes, stores, schools, and
offices from o n e a n other. As a resu l t, many h ousehol ds a r e
dependent on automobil es to conduct day-to-day activities. This
pattern of separate uses is mirrored in the private sector, where
developers, investors and bankers are specialized in-and increas-
ingly compartmentalized into-a given type of conventional
development (e.g., retai l or res identia l) and deve lop or finance
o n ly projects of that one type.1 Even bui ldi n g codes that mandate
setbacks, parking requirements, and height or density restrictions
often make illega l the very type of development that woul d
achieve smart growth.
Despite the many barriers, developers have been successful in cre-
ating p laces that exempli fy the principles of smart growth. The
process of creating such p laces, however, frequently requires them
to get variances to zoning codes-a process that is often uncer-
tain, time-consuming, and therefore costly. Creating more cer-
ta inty and expediting the approva l process for smart growth proj-
ects is of particular importance for developers, for wh om the
common mantra "time is money" very aptly applies. The longer it
takes to get approval for bui ldi n g, the longer the deve loper's capi-
ta l remains tied up in the land and n ot earning income. In addi-
tion, deve lopers pay high interest ra t es on construction loans, fur-
ther increasing development costs if construction approval is
de layed. T h e additional effort required to create smart growth in
many areas h elps to explain why deve lopers continue to buil d
conventional suburban developments, even though studies show
that neighborhoods that reflect smart growth principles sell for a
premium price.2 Improved public-private cooperation to support
smart growth projects can he lp level the playing field with con-
ventional suburban projects.
For smart growth to flouris h , state and loca l governments must
make an effort to make deve lopment decisions that support inno-
vation in a more timely, cost-effective, and predictable way for
deve lopers. By creating a supportive regulatory environment for
compact, pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use projects, government
can create a more attractive investment climate for smart growth
in which the private sector is more likely to participate.
I.
Provide financial incentives to aid the development of smart
growth projects.
While many aspects of smart growth offer the opportun ity to
conserve resources and land costs , some deve lopment projects do
require additional investment on the part of deve lopers in site
infrastructure. Al leys to all ow parking in tl1e rear, structured or
underground parking lots, sidewa lks and bicycle lanes, and parks
and other useful open space often add to the cost of a smart
growtl1 projects. W h ile these costs are often reflected in the final
price of tl1e projects or may be offset by the lower land costs due
to more compact sites, in some cases these additiona l costs deter
developers from initiating smart growth.
Communities and states can use a variety of tools to help develop-
ers reduce the cost of smart growth deve lopments. Local govern -
ments can use business improvement districts or tax increm e n t
financing, for example, to provide funds for smart growili infra-
structure such as parking, sidewalks, and plazas for commercial
areas. Federal transportation doll ars can be directed by states or
MPOs to make these types of community improvements , to offer
more transportation cho i ces near projects, or to c l ean up
brownfields, and to make infill sites "shovel-ready." The cost to
deve lopers of protecting watersheds and wetlands associated with
smart growth projects can be reduced, for example, by purchasing
easements through state clean water and drinking water revo lving
loan funds . These funds can also be used in brownfields cleanup.3
Whatever the funding source, governments' investments in proj-
ects to support smart growth should be considered investments in
the future viabi lity and livabi li ty of their communities.
2.
Conduct smart growth audits.
Along with a strong political commitment to smart growth, one
of the most important tools to achieve smart growth implementa-
tion is a clear evaluation of what is permissible in a given commu-
nity's regulatory context. Smart growth audits can he l p point out
standards or practices embedded in a jurisdiction's current opera-
tions that limit or prohibit smart growth projects from be i ng
implemented. By identifying these regulation s or practices, loca l
leaders can better prioritize those that need to be modified, and
developers can be better informed of the obstacles they are likely
to encounter should they attempt to create a smart growth proj -
ect. A regulatory audit in Illinois, for example, funded by the
Ill inois Department of Natural Resources, found that the median
requirements of the state's jurisdictions' zoning laws were
"significantly more land consumptive" than standards set by the
American Planning Association. Pavement widths for loca l resi -
dential streets are nearly double what smart growth policy would
recommend; minimum lot-size requirements are three to four
times above the ideal; and commercia l setbacks are well above the
optimal setback of zero, to cite a few find ings. The study was set
up as a model smart growth regulatory audit that could be copied
in other states at a minimal cost.4
MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR AND COST EFFECTIVE II
3·
Implement a process to expedite plan and permit approval for
smart growth projects.
Prompt, thorough review of proposed smart growth projects and
the timely issuance of permits can reduce the holding cost of land
for developers and make smart growth developments more attrac-
tive. One-stop shops, developer liaisons, priority review, and
r eview deadli n es are just a few ways communities can focus their
review resources on projects they want to encourage. For exam-
p le, Montgomery County, Maryland, created a "Green Tape"
review team that helps builders an d deve lopers obtain necessary
permits more quickly, and that acts as an ombudsman for devel-
opers seeking project approvals.
Care must be taken to ensure that there is n o rea l or perceived
favor itism wh en conducting these reviews . These resources can
be allocated many ways, including limiting them to specific geo-
graphic areas (such as special deve lopment zones) or by creating a
simple version of a se lf-scored checklist to quickly rank review
priority. By meeting their goa ls for expedited plan and review and
improvi n g cooperation with bui l ders and developers in the
process, communities can send the message to the private sector
that they are open for smart growth business.
4·
Engage political support for improved coordination on
approval of smart growth projects.
Large mixed-use, infill projects are very complex and usua ll y
require numerous approvals from a variety of regulatory agencies.
These projects are often the "showcase" smart growth projects in
any area, and they may be seen as the test model for smart growth
in tl1e region. If a major project succeeds, it can accelerate smart
PRACTICE TIP:
The city of Charlotte and
Mecklenbu r g County in North
Carolina used outside consultants
to review their planning, zoning,
infrastructure, and development
programs against fourteen smart
growth principles. The results
identified policy and program-
matic change s that could improve
the region 's ability to promote
smart growth. The results of this
study are ava i lable online at
www.charmeck.nc .us/ciplanning/c
omplan /smartgrowth/SmartGrow
thAudit.pdf.
PRACTICE TIP:
New Castle County, Delaware,
posts an annual timetable for
zoning and rezoning applications.
Developers kno w by what date
they need to submit their prelimi-
nary plans in order for the plans
t o be reviewed by the ne xt coun-
ci I meet ing . The schedule clearly
outlines the process and steps
that need to be taken and the
timeline for the review. For more
information, see www.co.new-
castle.de . us/Land U se/rezdates .htm
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
Georg ia Go ve rno r Roy B arne s
formed a "Green Li ght Te am" of
state, local , and federal agencies
as well as private secto r interests
to expedite th e approv a l and
infrastructu r e dev elopment for
the redevelopment of an old steel
mill. The Atl antic Station project
in Atlanta is a 183-acre mixed -
use infill project in the center of
Atlanta. Its success-particularly
impo rtant due to the city's legacy
as a "po ste r child fo r sprawl"-
depend s on coordinated input
from local, state, and federal
officials. The Green Light Team
meets monthly and has been suc -
cessful in coordinating approval
requirements, funding, and tim-
ing of the various agencies .
growth in the entire region. The success of these projects may
hinge on the speed of the review process. Political leaders can use
their officia l position to encourage regulatory agencies to work
more close ly together and to make such projects a high priority.
This coordination can identify and resolve problems quickly and
keep a project moving forward. In addition, smaller projects that
fo ll ow the larger ones often benefit from the relationships that
were created between regulators during this process.
This poli tical support can be done through behind-the-scenes
networking or th rough a visible, institutionalized action. The
state of Maryland, for example, became the first state to create a
cabinet-level position for a smart growth coordinator. The office
under the secretary for smart growth coordinates the activities of
other agencies, provides education and information on smart
growth to the p u blic, and facilitates the development of both
redeve lopment projects in existing communities and smart neigh-
borhoods in growing communities.
5·
Use a point-based evaluation system to encourage smart
growth projects.
Most conve n tio n al zoning codes offer re latively broad guidelines
that define the size and use of buildings. A point-based perform-
ance evaluation system for development projects provides a way
fo r communities to evaluate projects in terms of the smart growth
benefits they provide, as wel l. Since they are clear and open to the
public, the po int systems give developers flexibility to determine
h ow they will meet the community's smart growth goals rather
than mandating exactly what amenities are expected .
Communities can develop a point system by first identifyi n g a
series of design or service criteria that they want new develop-
ments to meet. The next step is to assign points to each cr iterion
to measure how well the proposed project meets comm unity
goals. Proposed projects are reviewed against the criteria, and
incentives are offered for projects that achi eve a predetermined
score. Austin (see Practice Tip under Princi ple 9, Policy 1), for
example, relies on very specific cri teria concerning design and
performance as measured by its Smart Growth Matrix. Projects
tl1at fail to meet the desired level can be redesigned during nego-
tiation with planning staff so they can achieve a higher score.
Communities can offer a wide range of incentives, such as reduc-
tion of development fees, support for infrastructure financing, or
density bonuses to encourage the features they desire. The va lue
of tl1e incentives may increase as the project scores increase, with
a low level of concessions being given for m inima ll y acceptable
scores and more valuable incentives given to higher-scoring projects.
6.
Remove parking from the development equation through pub-
lic-private partnerships to build community parking facilities.
Parking has a significant impact on the type of deve lopment that
takes place and the look and fee l of a community th at resu lts.
Prominent voices in development adhere to the belief that park-
ing drives development, as more space is often needed to park cars
than to house people.; This is particularly true for retail develop-
ment. The city of Olympia, Washington, estimates that parking
accounts for 54 percent of the site coverage for conventional retai l
development-more than double the footpri n t of the bu il ding
that itself accounts for only 26 percent.6 The prospects for creat-
ing smart growth on infill sites ar e often dimini sh ed by th e re qui -
si te am ount o f parkin g tha t is spec ified in lo ca l co des.
W hile loca l gove rnm en ts can ease the p arkin g burd en fo r devel-
opers by r e du cing exces s r e quirem e nts , gove rnmen t s ca n a lso
h e lp imp rove the integr a ti o n o f p a rkin g in to a co mmuni ty by
workin g with area land own er s and deve lo pers to fin an ce and b uild
co mmuni ty-own ed parkin g fac iliti es th at serve a ll the surrounding
buil dings. In so doing , loca l gove rnment r e moves a si za bl e po r-
ti o n of site pl anning and d eve lopment fr o m the deve lo pme nt
equ ati o n , whi ch m akes th e p rojec t eas ie r t o impl e m ent. Usin g
l oca l gove rnme nt a uth o ri ty a n d fees co ll ec t ed fr o m n ear b y
landowners wh o ben e fit fr om the p arkin g servic e, the community
ca n ac quire l and a nd build s tru c tured p arkin g fa c il i ti es a nd
re move th e zo nin g re quirem ents fo r parkin g in th e surro undin g
pl ots. Crea ting communi ty parkin g stru c tures ca n be par ticul arl y
useful wh en loca liti es se ek t o deve lo p hi gh-den sity infi ll and tran -
sit-ori ented devel o pment projects . In cr ea ting these lo ts, h owever,
the co mmuni ty n ee d s t o b e ve ry ca reful a b o ut the a m ount of
parkin g it suppli es; to o muc h p arking will r edu ce tra n sit use in
the ar ea, and too little parking ca n m ake the area und es irab le t o
certain tenants . At th e same tim e, potential lend er s for n ew d eve l-
opments in th e a rea mu st be edu ca t ed on the us e of co mmuni ty
p arkin g fac iliti es, beca u se the ir own le nding re quire m ents m ay
stipul at e that on-site parkin g be provid ed.
7·
Encourage demand for smart growth though consumer incentives.
Strong con sumer de m and is perh ap s the m os t direc t m ea n s t o
create an incentive for private development o f smart growth proj-
ec ts . The ec onomics of h om e and auto owner ship , supporte d by
p ost-WW II er a governme nt polici es that favo r buyi n g h ou ses on
MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE , FAIR AND COST EFFECTIVE II
PRACTICE TIP:
In the late 1970s, the city of Fort Collins, Colorado, adopted its Land Development Guidance System
(LDGS)-a point-based program to replace its convention al planned unit development ordinance. The system
gave developers density bonuses for projects that received high scores . The program was controversial and was
refined over time to ensure that the right types of projects received assi stance. It helped to create a very
vibrant smart growth community, despite the burden of outdated underlying zoning codes. In 1997, the com -
munity revised its comprehen sive plan and zoning code s to be t te r promote smart growth design and amenities.
As a result, it was determined that the LDGS was no longer needed , and it was eventually dropped. Some
developers resist the mandates of the new sy stem and want the option to retain the LDGS because it allows
them the flexibility to achieve re sults using a vari ety of designs rather than having requirements mandated . One
problem cited with the LDGS wa s that the cr iteria were so broad t hat the sy stem would still award high scores
to projects that did not achieve quality smart growth .
t h e edge of urban areas, sti ll pe r sist, desp ite a grow in g dema n d
for smart growth . Loca l an d state governmen ts can offer in ce n-
ti ves t o prospective home buyers that would h elp offset the myri -
ad exis ti ng tax , in frastru ctu r e, an d uti lity subsidies that curr ently
favor co n ve n t i ona l suburban deve l opme nt.7 New in ce n t ives
wo ul d h e l p l eve l t h e pl ayi ng "'"°'"""''"""'''"'"""'"""'
fi e ld between co n vention al an d
s m art g r ow th d eve l op m e n ts,
w hi ch wou ld g ive con s u mers a
wider range of ch o ice in the type
of co mm uniti es they li ve in , an d
w hi c h w o ul d c r eate mo r e
de m an d for deve lop m ent proj -
ec ts th at exemp li fy smart growth
principl es.
He lpi n g people to live close to
wo rk i s o n e such op p ortuni ty.
~....,..~~~
Structured parking -
owned and operated by
Montgomery County,
Maryland -helps relieve
parking pressure on the
streets surrounding
Bethesda 's retail areas.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
Montgome r y County, M ary land ,
has a number of county -owned
parking lots to service do wntown
Bethesda. These lots are placed
and constructed to al low the most
desi r able land-street frontages
on busy avenue s and boule -
vards-to remain available fo r
pedestrian-oriented, commercial
development. In a n effort to
encourage transit-oriented devel -
opment in the area, developers
are allowed to forgo building on-
site parking if they contribute to
the county 's parking fund , which
pays for the lots . The result has
been that developers are exempt-
ed from the co st and effort of
const r ucting parking, and the
community benefits from a
dynamic, walkable neighborhood
with a generou s mi x of office,
retail , restaurants , and hou sing .
A mix of buildings and a public square developed by
private developers on transit agency property
enhances the vitality of downtown Bethesda,
Maryland.
Living in proximity to workplaces provides
residents with opportunities for improved
househo l d choice in transportation and
reduced time spent commuting (and the air
pollution associated with it). Localities can
encourage employers to provide employees
Photo: Smart Growth N~work
with direct financial support, such as low-interest loans or down-
payment assistance, to purchase a house near work through
employer-assisted housing programs . Maryland's "Live Near Your
Work" program goes one step further by providing direct finan-
cial assistance for employees to buy a home near their work (see
Principle 1, Policy 1 for more information). The Location
Efficient MortgagesM is another useful tool to increase demand
for transit-oriented development by making it easier to qualify for
home purchases near transit (see Principle 3, Policy 6 for more
information).
8.
Display zoning regulations and design goals in pictorial fash-
ion to better illustrate development goals.
Depicting outcomes that are visual in nature through the written
word can be a challenge. Conventional zoning regulations are
often dense statistical documents, difficult to understand, and
sometimes vague. This can lead to confusion and misunderstand-
ing during the permit process, the need for multiple public hear-
ings to resolve disputes, and finally the resubmission of plans and
proposals-all of which constitute significant de lays and addition-
al costs for developers. Faced with this uncertainty, many devel-
opers will simply resort to building what they know they can
bui ld right away. The result is often more development that is
familiar and conventiona l and less likely innovative projects that
help create smart growth.
The concept that a picture is worth a thousand words has hel ped
to inform some communities' approaches to regulation. They are
finding that pictures can help convey to developers, architects,
and bui lders the precise types of developments that the communi-
ty wants. The city of Providence, Rhode Island, for example,
found that changing from "zoning by statistics" to "zoning by
showing" (what is desired) has created a simple, flexible process
for their Downcity redevelopment program (see Practice Tip
under Principle 10 for more information). The city of Boulder,
Colorado, has encouraged new mixed-use and infill development
by designing prototype projects to educate local developers about
the preferences that the community had expressed . The planning
office had architects create project prototype designs so develop-
ers could see exactly what tl1e community was looking to have
built. Loca l developers used these designs as guidelines to build
many early mixed-use projects.
PRACTICE TIP:
Man y new urba ni st and tradition al ne ig hbo r hoo d developments, such as
Harbor Town in Memphi s, Tennes see, use po sters to define what design cri -
teri a apply to new home s in t he community. The se cr iteria clearl y depict
wh at will and will not be accepted by de sign review boards and th us help to
preserve community char acter and create a sen se of pl ace.
r
9·
Maximize the value of transit agency property through joint
development of transit-oriented development.
Many transit agencies have underutilized property or air space
over property near rai l stations or bus routes. These resources
constitute va luab le investment opportunities for the private sec-
tor, which can be engaged through the joint development process
to put land to its h ighest an d best use . Recent changes in federa l
guideli n es have he lped to overcome obstacles that previously lim-
ited the sa le or leasing of these properties and have simplified the
process. Transit agencies can modify the criteria that they use to
evaluate deve lopment proposals-which currently focus on eco-
nomic profitabi lity, thereby favor ing high-value, single-use bui ld-
ings for office space,
for example-to
place more emphasis
on the potential role
of the deve lopment
in creating smart
growth. In short,
tra n s it agencies are
well-poised to act as
key imp lementers of
smart growth. As they work with tl1e private sector to develop
these parcels, transit agencies can ensure that space is used to cre-
ate the mixed-use, pedestrian-friendly development that the
parcels are naturally suited for.
Besides the potential for smart growth benefits, the joint develop-
ment effort can create benefits for both developers, who get
MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR AND CO ST EFFECTI VE II
PRAC TICE TI P:
The Wa shington Metropolitan Are a Transit Authority (WMATA) has one of the nation's mo st aggres sive joint
development programs . Over thirty projects have been developed or planned i n the last few year s. WMATA ha s
projected an income of $15 million dollars by 2003 from joint devel opment projects al o n~a figure that is
i mpres sive, although it could still be improved . The Chesapeake Bay Foundation has issued a report on how
WMATA could enhanc e its joint development program ent itled, "Building He althier Neighborhoods with
Metro r ail: Improving Joint Development Opportunities ." The report identifies barriers that WMATA faces -
and which other transit agencies may face as well -and how better partnerships with local government and
new policies could improve opportun ities for joint development.
access to va luable property that is near transit and in desirable
areas, and transit agencies, who are ab le to make more profitable
use of their rea l estate assets. Sa le or lease of the property gener-
ates revenues for the transit system. Increased deve lopment near
transit centers enabl es more peopl e to use transit for travel
between jobs, shops, and home. Finally, the public-private part-
nership that creates these transit-oriented deve lopment opportu-
nities can serve to demonstrate the viabi l ity and potential
profitability of smart growth projects for developers.
Public investment and plan-
ning and zoning changes
attracted private developers
back to "Downcity"
Providence , Rhode Island.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
IO.
Incorporate by-right smart growth redevelopment into exist-
ing communities' masterplans.
Infill redevelopment projects usu ally face greater regulatory barri -
ers than do greenfie ld sites. This tendency is oft e n a result of
more detailed regulatory systems put in place to protect exis tin g
residents against any potential adverse effects of redevelopment.
While the underlying motives are good, these regulatory frame -
works often have the undesirable effect of preventing-or making
it difficult to bui ld-smart growth. In m a ny commun iti es, for
example, the zo nin g code h as evo lved to a level that, if th e current
buildings o n a wo nd erfu l old commercial street were to burn
down, it would be illegal to rebuild them. These regulatory barri-
ers ofte n make it nearly impossible to recreate the wa lkab le,
m ixed-use environments that once existed in many communities
across the country.
Local government can promote the revitalization of important
neighborhoods in to smart growth communiti es by changin g t h e
planning and zon in g regulations in these areas so that compact,
wa lkab le, mixed-use, transit-oriented projects ca n be bui lt by
right. Such ch anges all ow a developer to purchase the land know-
ing that zoning varia n ces will n ot be required to buil d a sm a rt
growth project because the community h as ap proved this type o f
In Providence, Rhode Island, the city has used a master planning process to revitalize its old downtown retail district
known as Downcity. The planning process empha sized the educational and arts assets that exist in the area by creating
an arts and entertainment district that included hou sing and workspace for artists, students and retirees. An overlay
zone was created that designated streets as either "A(' or "B" streets . On A streets regulations exist to preserve their
historical, architectural, and walkable qualities. The rules for B streets are more flexible, but require developers to get
approval for the height, shape, and location of the building on the lot. These regulations, along with complementary
investments in public infrastructure like si dewalks and streets, have resulted in a development renaissance downtown .9
development in advance. A number of to o ls, includin g area plans
and overlay zones, ca n be used to ac hi eve thi s goal. By el iminating
uncertainty from th e d eve lopment e quation and permitting this
development by right, the community is making a clear statement
that developers are welcome to h elp create smart growth.
See Ch ri s Lei nberger, Finflncing Progressi ve Development (Was hin gto n ,
D.C.: Brookings Instirution, 200 1) for a thorough discussion o n the eight-
een types of development that can be financed in today's system and the
o bstacles for smart growth.
Mark Eppli and Charles Tu, Valuing the New Urbanism (Wash in gton, DC.:
Urba n Land Institute, 1999).
For more information on federa l funding for smart growth see EPA's smart
growth Web page funding sources gu id e at
www.epa.gov/s m artgrowth /funding.htm , as we ll as th e Assoc iatio n of
Metropo litan Planning O rganizatio n 's Redeveloping Brownfields with Federal
Transportation Funds at http ://smartgrowth.org/pdf/brownfie ld s_tea2 l.pdf.
"Local Codes an Obstacle to Smart Growth," New Urban News,
J anuary-February 200 1, l.
Robert Dunphy, "Parking Strategies," Urban Land, 59, no . 10 (October
2000):78 .
6 I bid.
7 Mic hae l Lewyn, "Why Sprawl is a Conservative Issue," Bulletin of Science ,
Technology , and Society, 20, no. 4 (August 2000): 295-3 15.
8 The Chesapeake Bay Foundation's fu ll report is available at www.savethe -
bay.cbf.org/ re sou rces/pu bs/metrora i 1. pd f.
9 For more information on Downcity pl an nin g and Impl ementatio ns see city
of Providence Depamnent of Planning and Development, Downcity
Pro viden ce: Master Plan and Implementation Plan (Provide nce: 1994).
Chapter Ten
Encourage Community and
Stake Holder Collaboration in
Development Decisions
G rowth can create great places to live,
work, and p lay-if it responds to a com-
munity's own sense of how and where the com-
munity wants to grow. Articulating this vis ion,
however, can be a challenge because the vis ion
must reflect the needs of a wide range of stake -
holders and community members. The deve l-
opment process allows for some of this input,
through periodic public hearings on planning
or zo ning decisions, for example. While useful,
these opportunities are only a few of the many
ways in which the values and concerns of all
stakeholders in deve lopment can help shape a
community's plan for growth.
A key component of smart growth is to ensure
early and frequent involvement of a ll st ake -
$MA RT GROWTH
NETWORK
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP:
holders to ide n tify and address
specific needs and concerns . The
In 1999, Governor Ventura laid out Minnesota's framework for smart range of these stakeh o lders is
broad an d includes developers,
urban p l an ners, transport atio n
eng i neers , conservation and
environmental groups, commu-
nity development advocates, his-
toric preservationists, com-
muters, studen ts, e nvironmental
justice advocates, senior citizen
organizations, children's advoca-
cy g r oups, churches, paren t-
teacher assoc iatio n s, civic associ -
ations, and many others . Each is
capable of co n tributing a unique
and valuable perspective to both
growth in "Growing Smart in Minnesota ." In response, Minnesota's state
legislature issued a number of mandates, which together form the basis of
the state 's smart growth initiatives. Realizing the important role the state
can play in helping local governments carry out the se initiatives,
Minnesota's Department of Planning and its local and state partners ere-
ated a guide for local governments. The guide incorporates the state's
goals and principles of smart growth . In addition, the Minnesota
Department of Planning has a Local Government Assistance Center with
staff who provide information and advice to local governments
on a number of issues, including how to fully engage the public
in the planning process. To receive a copy of the planning guide
or for more information about the Assistance Center see
www.mnplan .state.mn .us/commplan /index .html.
broad commu n ity p l ans and
specific project designs. These perspectives are particu larly criti-
ca l for the construction of the mixed-use, compact, wa lkab le, and
transi t-rich communiti es that smart growth supports because
these varied pe rspectives may represen t a departure from wh at is
conventiona l an d fami li ar. T h e mea ns of engaging the community
a n d stakeholders are myriad and range from early stake h o lder
in put in community plan s to ongoing feedback and eva luation of
the plan's imp lementation as projects are constructed. Ensuring a
high leve l of public awareness is on e of the most fundamenta l
strategies to guarantee that commun ity n eeds and poss ib le solu-
tio n s are fu ll y considered. This strat egy can he lp loca l leaders
better identify and support development that meets those needs .
This process can be time-consumi ng, fr u strati ng, and expensive.
I n many cases , in vo lv in g the publi c is a conten tious and even
messy process because of the d iverse ideas and priorities among
stake ho lders. However, it can also be a rewarding one as creative
so lutions are found in the most troublesome problems. Moreover,
in the lo n g run, community and stake h older coll aboration creates
a sound basis for creative, speedy reso lution of deve lopment con-
flicts, whic h can h el p make deve lopment decisio n s more timely,
cost-effective, and predictable. Engaging stakeholders early and
often and sh aring with them vita l information about development
options wi ll give them a greater understanding of the importa nce
of and cha ll enges associated with good p lannin g and investment.
Projects and plans developed without strong citizen invo lvement
wi ll lack th e community buy-i n necessary for success and make it
more diffic ult to bui ld support when tough decisions need to be
made . T h e following policies are designed to address some of the
barriers and constraints of community invo lvement.
I.
Seek technical assistance to develop a public participation
process.
Good information is critical to the smooth functioning of local
government, es p eciall y the planning process. Whil e ma ny local
governm ents may r ecognize the need for and va lue of engaging
the public in the decision-making process, governments may lack
the tools, information, or financia l reso urces that wi ll all ow them
to do so. N u merous tools and information sources exist, howev-
er-often based on the experience of other commun ities and pub-
lic participatio n specialists-that can be used to he lp loca l govern-
ments develop the capacity and confidence to undertake an effec-
tive citizen parti cipation process . Technical assistance may be
ava il able from states, in terest groups, nonprofit organ izations, and
private sector consultants to help counties, cities, an d towns craft
a strategy for stakeholder invo lvemen t . Loca l governments that
lack the necessary financial resources may take advantage of the
capacity of loca l community groups or universities by engagin g
them to assist with developing and implementing a public
involvement campaign for a specifi c project. For examp le, the city
of Eugene, Oregon, en gaged faculty and students from the nearby
lfniversity of Oregon planning department to h elp them carry
out their widely successfu l "Eugene Decisions" process. As a
result, not only have the ski ll s of local government staff improved,
but a wider range of stake ho ld ers ha ve been actively involved in
planning and development decisions about their commun ity's
future.
2.
Use unconventional methods and forums to educate nontradi-
tional , as well as traditional , stakeholders about the develop-
ment and dec ision-making processes.
In order for a community to fully support a new initiative, all seg-
ments of the population n eed to be informed and educated on its
components . Similarly, citizens n eed information about possible
a lternatives before they voice their choices or concerns. Often,
however, only a sma ll portion of the community is en gaged in the
decision-making process because of socioeconomic, language, or
education barriers. Involving a wide range of public voices at each
stage requires that loca l officials active ly so li cit and recruit diverse
components of th e publi c. Doing so means identifying and
addressing barriers to full public participation.
Local governments should be creative in identifying and using
new methods for sharing information. Common methods for
reaching a broad audience might include placing meeting notices
in l oca l papers, directing mail to individua ls and groups who
express an interest in a project, leaving copies of documents in
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION JN DEVELOMENT DECISIONS II
public offices and libraries, handing out leaflets, or inserting
information into other community forums . To reach other audi-
ences, a local government might hold eve ning or weekend meet-
ings on specific issues, present updates at neighborhood meetings,
host design charrettes, distribute radio public service announ ce-
ments, or work with local clergy and community-assistance
groups. Often, lower-income communities feel less po litica ll y
empowered to participate. To reac h these aud iences, loca liti es can
issue neighborhood notices or post notices in local newsletters
and loca l gathering spots suc h as post offices, popular shops, or
loca l farmers markets. Fina ll y, to ensure full access, key in forma-
tion on proposed development decisions should be translated into
the languages of area residents. Every community sh ould develop
its own range of methods to reach as many individuals and seg-
ments of the community as possible. T h e community must reflect
its unique demographic makeup in the va lu es it uses to frame the
planning process, and this can only be ensured if the cross section
of residents and their development priorities are well known.
3·
Conduct community visioning exercises to determine how and
where the neighborhood will grow.
Effective decision making about h ow regions wi ll grow requires
considerable information gathering on the part of both profes-
sio n als and ci ti zen -stakeho ld ers. For this reason, it is important to
u se a number of visualization tools that allow for a greater under-
standing of the way planning decisions affect citi zens. For exam-
ple, a computer simulation can depict radica l changes in a
streetscape-such as the construction of new buildings or the
incorporation of transit infrastructure into existing roadways-in
just seconds . It can h e lp create an image of what a proposed mul-
tifamily development would look like, thus enabling community
PRACTICE TIP:
In 1989, the city of Portland,
Oregon, began the work that led
to the adoption in December
1994 of a regional growth plan -
the Region 2040 Growth
Concept. Metro developed base
conditions and community values
that were then used to propose 3
potenti al alternative urban form
strategies for the region, from
which a preferred alternative
could be constructed. To engage
citizens in developing this alter-
native, a video outlining the
option s and their impacts on the
region was developed and avail-
able to the public for no charge
through Blockbuster Video out-
lets, a cha i n of video rental
stores. As a result, the process
solicited more than 17,000 citi-
zen comments and suggestions,
which eventually led to the selec-
tion of an alternative that reflect-
ed public comment as well as
aspects of each of the alternative
scenarios provided.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
Developers engaged community
residents and neighborhood vendors
to address density and retail design
issues in Hisman Hin-Nu terrace in
Oakland, California.
members to determine its appropriateness based on specifics
rather than broad planning concepts such as "higher-density con-
struction." Alternative future scenarios can be used to model the
growth of a region over a specified time frame and can be gener-
ated in real time to respond to different variables suggested by a
live audience. This rapid response to concerns and ideas provides
facilitators with the tools to more quickly and efficiently reach
consensus for innovative plans. Other exercises might include
providing local residents an opportunity to vote, to comment on
several designs of a proposed
project, or to speak directly with
designers and architects
Increasingly, planning offices
and development consulting
firms use computer imaging to
engage citizens in planning
workshops. In Chattanooga ,
Tennessee, after the East Gate
Mall failed, the community came
together with strong ideas about future uses of the old shopping
center. Members of the community were tired of large, single-use
developments and wanted to see a village center that was consis-
tent with the scale of surrounding neighborhoods. Since it was
not feasible to redevelop the entire site at once, they were shown
a computer simulation of several distinct phases that would be
implemented over a span of years, according to market condi-
tions. This simulation enabled citizens to visualize how new
buildings would initially be sited in outlying parking areas, even-
tually replacing the mall itself. The community's vision formed
tl1e basis for a plan that will guide development and that will radi-
cally change the look and feel of that community over the years to
come.
4·
Require communities to create public access to tax and lien
information on all properties to facilitate the rehabilitation of
distressed properties.
Community groups are better able to offer innovative solutions
about difficult development challenges when they have access to
information. However, neighborhood groups often have difficul-
ties obtaining the information they need to fight deterioration in
their own area. Efforts to find information about tax arrears and
outstanding liens on properties in disrepair or blight, or about
owners of abandoned or vacant properties, can be time-consum-
ing and difficult. Residents may be frustrated by efforts to access
this information that is kept in various computer banks or scat-
tered among different government agencies.
State and local governments can support the public information
process by providing better access to tax and lien arrears . Citizens
can tl1en use tl1is information to encourage owners to make need-
ed repairs or sell their properties or to engage local authorities to
se ize abandoned properties for revitalization. Loca l governments
ca n h elp the public be an active participant in su·engthening its
own community by providing easy access to data by collecting
and assembling into one area data that would otherwise be scat-
t ered . This can include making data ava il ab le on computer sys -
PRACTICE TIP:
In Chicago, the Center for Neighborhood Technology has developed the
Neighborhood Early Warning System (NEWS) that makes it easy to obtain
housing information that can be critical to the success of any sustainable
community development project. NEWS is an on line inventory of property
in Chicago, which provides information that can help community groups
and city and county agencies identify sites of potential disinvestment and
abandonment. For severely tax-delinquent buildings, NEWS makes data
available for Chicago's Scavenger Sale and the County Treasurer's Annual
Sale. With NEWS, residents can respond proactively to troubled buildings
and neighborhoods. Because it is a Web-based system, NEWS can be easily
replicated in other areas, which allows localities to increase community
access to information. For more information, see www.newschicago.org .
terns that could be accessed on lin e or through a computer located
in a centra l public building, such as city hall. Governments can
provide training for loca l grou ps on h ow to access and use th e
data availab le . In ad dition to being more informed about the
development cha ll enges communities and government face, this
approach also allows residents to more effectively act to prevent
commercial and residential abandonment and decline, which can
lead to additional financial disinvestment. In this way, residents
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOMENT DECISIONS m
work with their governments to create more livable, vibrant com-
munities.
5·
Incorporate opinions and interests often and routinely into
the planning process.
T h ere are numerous phases within t h e development process that
require public involvement, including the process of deciding
what to build, where to build, how to build, the constantl y ch an g-
in g site plans , and the multipl e phases of implementation. Many
of the policies in this section discuss mechanisms of public
invol ve ment in the initial phases of development. However, the
involvement of the public after the decision has been made of
what to build is equa ll y important to ensure that t h e project con-
forms to the original decision and design parameters during its
implementation. Thi s citizen involvement is most effective ly
done wh en there is a clear and con sistent means of incorporating
public opinion o n an ongoin g basis into the development process.
The process may include an easy and conven ient mechanism to
reach public decision makers or regularly scheduled (weel<ly or
monthly) public meetings with the developer. A number of oth er
communiti es use Web sites to in crease the ava il abi li ty of inform a-
tion about changes to a specific site des ign, for examp le. In this
way, the public can remain informed and engaged as the deve lop-
ment moves from design to construction and use.
Local jurisdictions can also formal ize citizen input by in sti tuti on-
a li zin g a citizen ro le in the process of reviewing development
decisions. Citizen involvement can be achieved through citize n
advisory and neighborhood councils. In general, advisory com-
mittees tend to attract individuals who are knowledgeable around
a specifi c type of project an d w ho, over the course of that project,
PRACTICE TIP:
The Community Development
Department in the city of
Spokane, Washington recognizes
thirteen neighborhood groups in
areas primarily composed of low-
and moderate-income residents .
These neighborhoods receive a
portion of the city's Community
Development Block Grants to
make recommendations on proj-
ects to be funded in their respec-
tive neighborhoods. The neigh-
borhood groups support existing
projects, research and propose
new ones, and present their rec-
ommendations for approval.
Because they have been involved
in the decision-making process
and are familiar with their own
needs, the neighborhoods groups
are better prepared to participate
during the implementation stage
as well. They meet with the divi-
sions of city government that are
implementing projects, monitor
progress and timelines, and make
suggestions when new issues
arise.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
provide a neighborhood perspective and experience in their rec-
ommendations. Conversely, neighborhood councils are usually
institutionalized mechanisms for direct public involvement in
comprehensive planning and civic issues. Neighborhood council
can make recommendations on proposed deve lopment activities
and serve as the vehicle for citizen input for changes to the land
use plan, park plan, or other planning activities. Whether formal-
ized or not, providing a means for ongoing citizen participation in
decision making and project implementation creates a feeling of
ownership among community members and ensures higher-quali-
ty outputs as a result.
6.
Work with the media to disseminate planning and develop -
ment information on a consistent basis.
PRACTICE TIP:
David Goldberg of the Atlanta Journal Constitution identified the interest
of local citizens in stories on congestion and quality of life, but he noted a
lack of ability among many readers to connect these impacts to local plan-
ning and development decisions. By securing the commitment of editorial
staff, Goldberg was able to feature a regular weekly section on these
issues, which provided a context to explain how the se effects were linked
to the development decisions that created them . This coverage provided an
important forum for Atlanta's residents to consider critical decis ion s on
regional transit, downtown revitalization, and a proposed outer beltway,
among others, in the years that followed. Tips on how to portray issues in
the media related to development and growth are available in Goldberg's
publication, Covering Urban Sprawl: Rethinking the American Dream , avail-
able through www.rtnda.org/resources/s prawl /sprawl.html.
Traffic congestion, loss of open
space, and economic growth and
jobs are concerns that consis-
tently rank at the top of the list
of citizen concerns for their
communi ties. Although p l an -
ning, smart growth, and growth
management issues are complex
and mu ltifaceted issues that are
sometimes difficult to comprehend,
they have a profound effect on
these common problems . Often,
the public does not understand
how its everyday activities influ-
ence these conditions or how
planning or smart growth could relieve some of the prob lems and
improve quality of life.
All media outlets regularly feature stories on pertinent local and
regional topics. Localities can encourage newspapers, radio, or
local television to cover development and planning issues. The
greatest impact will be made when these issues are covered as a
regular column or through a series of recurring feature stories
that take the time to unravel the complex web of individual public
and private decisions and the cumulative changes in quality-of-life
that result. Not only do these information venues provide a means
for news outlets to cover issues that resonate with their audiences,
such venues also provide a means for local leaders to better
inform citizens on the impacts of pending development and infra-
structure decisions.
7·
Engage ch ildren t hrough ed ucation and out reach.
As it is often said, today's children are tomorrow's leaders.
Engaging chi ldren often and early is critical for them to develop a
comprehensive understanding on how the built environment
impacts the natural one, and moreover, their quality of life. In
addition, many children "teach" their parents about new issues
and innovative so lutions. To some degree, the success of recycling
can be attributed to children who learned about it in schoo l ,
brought it home, and created a demand by parents for curbside
recycling. Many schools now have some type of environmental
education program in their curriculum. Local governments and
school boards can work with teachers to expand these programs to
provide children the vocabulary and tools to understand how
development impacts the natural world and wh at they can do to
influence the development process. Once a better understanding
has been developed of the links between development decisions
and quality of life, students will have a better sense of how to
build a community th at meets the needs of its residents and will
be more inclined to engage in the process to implement that vision.
One of the most innovative programs tha t teach children about
the concepts of community planning is known as "Box City."1
This program provides a hands-on approach to community plan-
ning by allowing students to use milk cartons to make their own
buildings and to create their own communities. Program compo-
nents mirror the way real communities get built, through a mix of
collaboration, regulation, and entre-
preneurship. When the community is
built, the kids evaluate it and compare
the good and bad features with the
community in which they live. The
program aids students to better com-
prehend the built environment, why it
is important to them, and how they
can help shape it.
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOMENT DECISIONS m
8.
Cultivate relationships with schools,
universities, and colleges.
Universities and co ll eges can be a great resource for localities for
intellectual capita l and research assistance. At the same time, the
real-world process of local government decision making about
development provides an excellent opportunity for applied stu-
de n t learning. Recognizing these sh ared benefits, many un iversi -
ties are able to assist loca l governments to address growth issues
through research and community-based
projects. Such opportunities provide plan-
ning and real estate students the chance to
assist on projects as interns, and provide
loca l government a way to expand its tempo-
rary work force to complete short-term
projects. Furthermore, the insight that pro-
fessors and instructors can provide as aca-
demic experts can enrich many local govern-
ment planning processes with original ideas
and perspectives.
For examp l e, the University of Notre Dame School of
Architecture in South Bend, Indiana, has established a center
that employs the expertise of faculty and students to assist
developers and public officials on projects in that city.2 Another
such center, the National Center for Smart Growth Research
and Education at the University of Maryland in College Park,3
analyzes the impacts of alternative development patterns and
monitors and evaluates specific smart growth alternatives in
communities across Marylan d and elsewhere . In addition, the
Children in Kansas City envision
changes to their community using
Box City.
center conducts outreach
sessions with developers,
PRACTICE TIP:
Jn Liberty, Mi ssouri , a Kansas
Ci ty suburb, a pr ogram demon-
strated how youth can contribute
to problem solving for community
tran sportation iss ues. Students in
the seventh grade surveyed sixth
grade students to determine cur-
rent modes and preferences for
getting to sc h ool. The re sults
showed that 77 percent of the
students would like to bike to
school, yet only 10 percent did
so. The students shared the
results with the local planning
commission and pointed out that
a lack of sidewa lks was one of the
main rea sons that students were
not able to safely bike or walk to
school. They provided input on
how to improve city trails and
walkways. The planning commis -
sion wa s so impressed with the
information provided by the stu-
dents that a student is now a
member of the long -r an ge plan-
ni ng committee .
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
PRACTICE TIP :
Community members were
engaged to help create a plan for
the reuse of a historic train station
in Evanston , Wyoming , as a com-
munity center.
loca l governme n t officials, lenders, publi c hea lth experts, an d citi-
zen leaders to identify barriers to smart growth and so lutions to
overcome them.
9·
Bring developers and the development community into the
visioning process.
The vision of how a n d where a community wants to grow should
help reso lve a number of key socia l, economic, transportation ,
and growth con side r atio n s. The vis ion sh ould represen t the va l-
ues of its res ide n ts of wh at the community sh ould look li ke in the
future. In order to be successfu l, th e vis ion should also represent
the in put of an important stakeh older gro u p: developers. As on e
of the most critica l groups for imp lemen tatio n , deve lopers should
be e n gaged in the vis ion in g process, n ot on ly in the plan s to carry
out a speci fic project. Ea rl y engage ment by deve lopers ca n hel p
en sure that co mmun ity pl an s are eco no mi ca ll y feas i b le and attrac-
tive en ough to ensure active private-sector participation .
The Urban Land Institute (U LI) in Washington, D.C., has an advisory service that offers expert advice to help commu-
nities find creat i ve, practical solutions for the full range of land-use and development issues. Washington , D.C.'s
Department of Planning enlisted U LI to help redevelop Waterside Mall, an underutilized two-block stretch in the
southwest part of the city. A team of experts spent several days on site touring the study area, meeting and interview-
ing key people within the community, and preparing findings and recommendations . This process, which incorporated
community participation, helped build consensus for the recommendations that served as a blueprint for the plan
adopted . Over time, the area will be redeveloped into a town center with new restaurants , cafes and services that serve
nearby residents. In addition , the project w i ll reconnect downtown with the waterfront and will provide additional
opportunities for commercial development or recreation. For more information on U Li 's Advisory Services see
http://experts .uli.org/DK/AdServ/ex _AdServ _About_ fslhtml.
.RAILWAY~~
Engaging members of the development community who have
ski ll s in conceptualizing, financing, and constructing projects can
ensure that community-based p lans are feasible and cost-effec-
tive. In addition, experience has shown that developers who have
intimate knowledge of loca l conditions and community values are
ab le to create better communities than those deve lopers who do
n ot. Blen ding t he expertise of the development community with
th e visioni n g process car ri ed out by commun ity members creates
a better end product for all.
IO.
Hold a design charrette to resolve problematic development
decisions.
Engaging the community to envision its growth priorities can be
a t i me-co n sumi n g process t h at may take months or years .
C h arrettes, on the o th er hand, are brief, inten se four-to seve n -
day design sessions that address speci fie urban problems or
broader community visions. Al l citizens who are interested in the
issues or projects to be considered are invited to participate and
are placed in a room with maps of the su1dy area. Over the course
of a few days, with the h elp of a team of professionals (faci lita -
tors, engineers, planners, designers , and architects), these citizens
are able to draw a clear picture of the future of the ir community.
This sh ared achievement gives a project a better chance of suc-
cessfu ll y navigating th e n umerous politica l, economic, and envi-
ronmenta l obstacles that the project may face because true buy-in
has been achieved.
Charrettes can be used to address a variety of needs, from reach -
ing co n sensus on long-term visions for town deve lopment to
finding workable agreemen ts on single projects . T h ey can identify
short-term and long-term problems and is sues that are important
to re sidents and bu siness leaders, as well as identify opportunities
and needs. Charrettes build both immediate and long-term solu-
tions , by outlining short-term steps as part of the work product.
They may offer implementation strategies and offer policies and
principles for futur e d e cision making and town deve lopment.
Brainstorming and negotia tion during a charrette can change
mind s and faci litate unexpected concepts or so lutions to prob-
le ms . As a result, the number and variety of solutions and ideas
generated and considered are far greater than those under con-
ventional planning methods , which would normally take months
to achieve .
For more information on Box C ity, see www.cubekc.org/.
For more information see www .nd .edu/-arch/.
3 For furth er inform atio n see
www.info rm .umd.edu/EdRes/Coll eges/ARCH/URSP/Resea rch/CSG/.
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOMENT DECISIONS II
PRACTICE TIP:
Jackson Hole, Wyoming, struggles with an affordable housing problem . To
address the area 's need for more housing, Teton County (in which Jackson
Hole is situated) acquired a 329-acre parcel of land on which it plans to
build a new neighborhood that will i nclude affordable housing . To ensure
that this new development meets the need s of the Jackson Hole community,
the design process is being guided by public input. In November 2001, a
design charrette was held to solicit public input that the county would use
to create specific ideas about the development for the public's approval.
The public was able to return to t he char rette time and again during the
course of a week to see the project transfo r med and to see how its new
ideas were translated into the specific plans for development.
Conclusion
T he range and breadth of policies that communities can use to
achieve vibrant, healthy, and diverse living environments go
well beyond the 100 identified here. Nevertheless, the framework
provided in this primer-using the ten smart growth principles as
broad community objectives and specifying detailed programs and
policies to achieve them-may provide a first step for communities
to move toward implementation. It is not uncommon for the
slightest change-even adoption of even a single policy-to be
met with resistance by some. It is incumbent upon communities,
therefore, to ensure that any new approach to development is one
that actively and equitably considers the needs of all those who
affect and are affected by development. The rationale for this new
smart growth approach must be well articulated and supported by
clear short-and long-term community goals that measurably
improve the community's quality of life.
As with all efforts, implementation of a broad smart growth strat-
egy as well as detailed policy changes should be evaluated periodi-
cally for effectiveness. Creating benchmarks for improved fiscal
efficiency in infrastructure and school spending, for example, can
be valuable management tools for local officials seeking to ensure
that smart growth efforts result in an improved bottom line.
Partnerships and diverse coalitions-such as that represented by
the Smart Growth Network itself-can also be effective tools for
identifying priorities and reaching consensus among members of
a community.
The route to achieving smart growth will be different in every
community, as will the outcomes. In every case, however, it is the
demand for the the economic, environmental and community
benefits that smart growth can provide, paired with a clear and
comprehensive approach towards achieving them, that will result
in successful smart growth implementation.
CONCLUSION II
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
100 Policies for Implementation
State Lo cal Mix land Take Create a range Create Foster distincti ve Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage
uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development comm unity and
of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeho lder
building and choices a strong sense and critical towards existing choices predictable, collaboration
design of place environmental communities and cost in de ve lopment
areas effective decisions
I. Mix land uses
1. Provide incentives through state funds to encour-
age residents to live near where they work. ./
2. Adopt smart growth codes to parallel existing con-
ventional development codes. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
3. Use innovative zoning tool s to encourage mixed-
use communities and buildings. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
4. Facilitate financing of mixed-use properties. ./ ./ 1 . ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
5. Zone areas by building type, not by use. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
6 . Use flex zoning to allow developers to easily supply
space in respon se to market demands. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
7. Convert declining shopp ing malls and strip com-
mercial streets into mixed-use developments. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
8. Provide examples of mixed-use development at
scales that are appropriate to your community. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
9. Create opportunities to retrofit single use commer-
cial and retail developments into walkable, mixed-
use communities. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
10. Reward communities that create a balance
between jobs and housing. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
II. Tal<e advantage of compact building design
1 . Use public meeting s about development options to
educate community members on density and com-
pact building options. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
2. Ensure ready access to open space in compactly-
developed places . ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
3. Encourage developers to reduce off-stree t surface ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ parking.
4. Match building sca le to street type
in zoning and permit approval
processes. ./ ./ ./ ./
5. Establ ish model state-level design standards and
codes to encourage compact building design that
can be adopted by local communities. ./ ./ ./
6. Use density bonuses to encourage developers to
increase floor-to-area ratio (FAR). ./ ./ ./ ,/ ./ ./ ./
7. Ensure a sense of privacy through the design of
homes and yards. ./ ./ ./
State Local Mix Land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage
uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development community and
of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholder
building and choices a strong sense and critical towards existing choices predictab le, collaboration
design of place environmental communities and cost in development
areas effective decisions
8. Emplo y a design review board to ensure that com-.I .I .I .I .I pact buildings reflect desirable design standards.
9. Offer incentives that encourage local communities
to increase density. .I .I .I
10. Support regional planning efforts to encourage .I .I compact communities. .I .I .I .I .I .I
III. Create a range of housing opportunities and choices
1. Enact an inclusionary zoning ordinance for new .I .I .I housing developments.
2. Provide homebuyer assistance through support to
community land trusts. .I .I .I .I
3. Revise zoning and building codes to permit a
wider variety of housing types. .I .I .I .I .I
4. Plan and zone for affordab le and manufactured
housing development in rural areas . .I .I .I
5. Educate developers of multi-family housing units
and nonprofits on the use of limited equity (or
.I .I .I equity restriction) components .
6. Educate realtors, lenders, and home buyers on the
use of resource-efficient mortgages. .I .I .I .I .I .I .I
7. Implement a program to identify and dispose of
vacant and abandoned buildings . .I .I .I .I .I .I .I
8. Adopt special rehabilitation building codes to reg-
ulate the renovation of existing structures. .I .I .I .I .I .I .I
9. Enli st local jurisdictions in implementing a
regional fair-share housing allocation plan across
.I .I .I .I .I .I metropolitan areas.
10. Give priority to smart growth projects and
programs that foster smart growth in the allocation
of federal housing and community development
block grant (and other) funds. .I .I .I .I .I .I .I
VI. Create walkable communities
1. Provide grants or other financial assistance to
local communities to retrofit existing st ree ts and
sidewalks to promote more walkable communities. .I .I .I .I .I
2. Concentrate critical services near homes, jobs,
and transit. .I .I .I .I .I
----
3. Require building design that makes commercial .I .I areas more walkable. .I .I
4. Adopt design standards for streets that ensure
sa fety and mobility for pedestrian and non-motor-.I .I .I .I .I .I ized modes of transport.
5. Adopt design standards for sidewalks. .I .I ,/ .I .I .I
State Local Mix Land Take
uses advantage
of compact
building
des ign
6. Require traffic-calming techn ique s where traffic
speed through residential and urban neighbor-
hood s is exces sive . ./ ./
7 . Beautify and maintain ex isting and future wal k-
ways. ./
8 . Prov ide Amer i can s with di sab i lities easy access to
sidewalks , streets , park s, and other public and pri-./ vate serv ices.
9. Connect walkways , parking lots, greenways, and
developments . ./ ./
10. Identify economic opportunities that stimulate
pedestrian activity. ./ ./ ./
V. Foster distinctive , attract ive communities with a strong sense of place
1. Modify state funding proces ses and school siting
standards to preserve neighborhood schools and
build new schools to a "community level."
2. Create a state ta x credit to encourage adaptive
reu se of hi storic or architecturally significant
bui lding s.
3 . Plant trees throug hout communities, and preserve
4 .
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
existing trees duri ng new con struction .
Create active and secure open spaces.
Simplify and expedite permitti ng regulation s to
allow vendors to offer sidewalk service .
Create special improvement districts for focused
investment.
Define communities and neighborhoods with visual
cues.
Preserve scenic vistas through the appropriate
location of telecommunication towers, and
improved control of billboards.
Create opportunities for commun i ty interaction .
Enact clear design guidelines so that streets, bu i ldings,
and public space s work together t o create a sense of place .
./ ./
./
./
,/
,/
,/ ,/
./
,/ ,/
,/
./ ./ ,/
Create a range
of hou sing
opportunities
and cho ice s
VI. Preserve open space , farmland , natural beauty, and critical environmental areas
1. Use TDR s, PDR s and other market mechanisms to
con serve private land s. ,/ ,/
2 . Coordinate and link local, state, and federal plan-
ning on land conservat ion and development. ,/ ,/
3 . Expand use of i nnovative financing tools to facili-
tate open space acquis i t ion and preservation . ,/ ./
4. Employ regional development strategies that bet-,/ ./ ter protect and preserve open space in edge areas .
Create Fo ster distinctive Pre serve open Strengthen and Provide a Mak e En co ur age
walkable attractive spa ce, farmland , dire ct va riety of de ve lopment community and
communities communitie s with natural beauty , development transportati on de cisions stake hold er
a strong se nse and criti ca l towa rd s ex isting choices pred ic tabl e, coll aboratio n
of pl ac e envir onm ental co mmun itie s and cost in deve lopm ent
areas effec tive decisio ns
./ ./
./ ./ ./ ./
------
./ ./ ./
./ ./ ./ ./
./ ./ ./
./ ./ ./ ./
./ ./ ./
./ ,/ ./
,/ ,/ ,/
,/ I ,/ ./ ./
,/ ,/ ,/
,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
,/ ,/
,/ ,/
,/ ,/ ,/ -
-,/ ./ ,/
,/ ./ ./
,/ ./
,/ ./ ./
State Lo cal Mix Land
uses
Take
advantage
of compa ct
building
desi gn
Create a range
of hou si ng
opportunitie s
and cho ic es
Cre ate
walk ab le
co mmunit ies
Fo ster di stin ctive
attracti ve
communitie s wit h
a strong se ns e
of place
Preserve open
spa ce, fa rmland ,
natur al be au ty,
and crit ic al
environm ental
area s
Str ength en and
direc t
deve lopm ent
towa rd s ex ist ing
co mmun it ies
Pr ovi de a
va rie ty of
t ransport at io n
choices
Make
deve lopmen t
de cisio ns
pr edic tabl e,
and cost
eff ec ti ve
En cou rage
co mmun ity and
stak eholder
co ll aborat io n
in de vel opment
dec ision s
5. Adopt a green infrastructure plan . ,I ,1 ~ 11------------..:._ _____ ,l ______ ,I ___ _ 6. Create a network of trail s and greenway s. ,I ,I ,1 ,1 I ,, _ ,1
7. Design and implement an information-gathering
_an_d_e_d_u_c_at_io_n_p_r_o~g _ra_m_. ________________ .t ______________________________ ~1 ,I ,I ,I
8 . Design and implement zoning tools that preserve I
~op_e_n_s_p_ac_e_. ____________________ .t ______________________________ ~,1 ..._ _____ .t ____________ .t _________ _
9. Provide mechanisms for preserving working land s. ,I ,1 ,1,1 I
10. Partner with nongovernmental organization s to
acquire and protect land . ,I ,I
,I
,I
Vil. Strengthen and direct development towards existing communities
1. Stre ng t hen th e sta te or loca l brown fie lds program . ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I
2 . Adopt a "fix-it-first" po li cy that sets priorities ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I for upgrading existing facilities .
3 . Ins t itute regional tax base sharing to
lim it regional competition and t o support
schools and infrast ructure throughout
,I ,I ,I ,I the reg ion . ,I
4 . Use the split-rate property ta x to encourage devel-
opment on vacant or bl ighted pieces of land in
,I ,I ,I ,I existing communities.
5. Locate ci vic building s in existing commun i tie s ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I rather than in green fi eld areas .
6 . Conduct an "infill checkup " to eva l uate and prior-
iti ze i nfi ll and brownfield sites for redevelopment. ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I
7 . Facilitate programs to encourage home renovation ,I and rehabilitation in exi sting neighborhood s. ,I ,I ,I ,I I .t
8 . Support community-based organ i zation s involved
in re vitalizing neighborhoods. ,I ,I ,I ,I I .t ,I ,I
9 . Create economic incentives for bu sinesses and
home owners to locate in area s with exi sting infra-
,I ,I ,I ,I structure . ,I ,I ,I
10. Modify average co st-pricing practices in utilities to
better account for costs of expanding infrastructure
,I ,I ,I in greenfie ld areas . ,I
VIII. Provide a variety of transportation choices
1. Fi nance and provide incentives for multimodal
transportation systems that include supportive ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I land use and development.
2. Modify roadway level -of-service standards in
areas served by transit. ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I ,I
3. Pl an and permit road network s of neighborhood
sc aled streets (genera ll y two or four lanes) with
hi gh leve ls of connectivity and short blocks. ,I ,I ,I ,I
State Local Mix Land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage
uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development community and
of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholder
building and choices a strong sense and critical towards existing choices predictable, collaboration
design of place environmental communities and cost in development
areas effective decisions
4. Connect transportation modes to one another. ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
5. Zone for concentrated activity centers around
transit service . ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
6. Require sidewalks in all new developments . ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
7. Address parking needs and opportunities. ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
8. Collaborate with employers and provide informa-
lion and incentives for programs to minimize or
decrease rush-hour congestion impacts. ,/ ,/ ,/
9. Adju st existing transit services to take full advan-
tage of transit supportive neighborhoods and
developments. ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
10 . Cl uster freight facilities near ports, airports,
and rail terminals. ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
IX. Mal<e development decisions predictable, fair, and cost effective
1. Provide financial incentives to aid the develop-,/ ,/ ,/ ment of smart growth projects .
2. Conduct smart growth audits. ,/ ,/ ,/
3. Implement a process to expedite plan and permit
approval for smart growth projects. ,/ ,/
4. Engage political support for improved coordina-,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ tion on approval of smart growth projects.
5. Use a point-based evaluation system to encourage
smart growth projects. ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
6. Remove parking from the development equation
through public-private partnerships to build com-
,/ ,/ ,/ munity parking facilities.
7. Encourage demand for smart growth though con-
sumer incent ives. ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
8. Di splay zoning regulations and design goals in pie-
torial fashion to better illustrate development goals. ,/ ,/
9 . Maximize the value of transit agency property
through joint development of transit-oriented
development. ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
10. Incorporate by-right smart growth redevelopment
into existing communities' masterplans. ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/
X. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions
1. Seek technical assistance to develop a public par-
ticipation process. ,/ ,/ ,/
2. Use unconventional methods and forums to edu-
cate non-traditional, as well as traditional, stake-
holders about the development and decision-mak-
ing processes. ,/ ,/
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
State
Conduct community visioning exercises to deter-
mine how and where the neighborhood will grow.
Require communities to create public access to
tax and lien information on al l properties to facili-
tate the rehabilitation of distressed properties.
Incorporate opinions and interests often and roun-
tinely into the planning process.
Work with the media to disseminate planning and
development information on a consistent basis.
Engage children through education and outreach. ./
Cultivate relationships with schoo ls, universities, ./ and co l leges.
Bring developers and the development commun ity
into the visioning process .
Hold a design charrette to resolve problematic
development decisions.
Local Mix Land Take Create a range Create
uses advantage of housing walkable
of compact opportunities neighborhoods
building and choices
design
./
./
./
./
./
./
./
./
Foster distinctive Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage
attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development community and
communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholder
a strong sense and critical towards existing choices predictable, collaboration
of place environmental communities and cost in development
areas effective decisions -./
-
./ ./ -
./
-
./ -
./ ,_____
./ ,_____
./
,_____
L.,.,_
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH
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List of Acronyms
ADA -Americans with Disabilities Act
ADU -Accessory dwelling unit
AHS-American Housing Survey (part of the U.S. census)
APA -American Planning Association
CalPERS -California Public Employees' Retirement System
CBO -Community-based organization
C DBG -Community Development Block Grant (a HUD pro-
gram)
CD C -Community Development Corporation
CLT -Community Land Trust
DOT -Department of Transportation (also referred to as U.S.
DOT)
EPA -Environmental Protection Agency (also referred to as U .S.
EPA)
FAR -Floor-to-area ratio
FHWA -Federa l Highway Administration (part of DOT)
G IS -Geographic information system
HIP -Housing Incentive Program
HUD -Department of Housing and Urban Development
ICMA -International C ity/County Management Association
ITE -Institute of Transportation Engineers
LDGS -Land deve lopment guidance system
LEM -Location Efficient Mortgage5M
MPD U -Moderately priced dwell ing unit
MPO -Metropolitan p lanning organization
NCDOT -North Carolina Department of Transportation
NEWS -Neighborhood early warning system
NJTPA-North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority, Inc.
PACE -Purchase of agricultura l conservation easements
PDR -Purchase of development rights
PUD -Planned unit deve lopment
T DR -Transfer of development r ights
T EA-21 -Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century
TOD -Transit-oriented development
T PL -Trust for Public Land
ULI -Urban Land Institute
U SDA -Department of Agriculture
VMT -Vehicle miles traveled
WMATA -Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority
LIST OF ACRONYMS Iii