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$MART GROWTH
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ISBN: 0-87 326-139-9
einternational City/COlmty Management Assoc iation
INTRODUCTION
Getting to Smart Growth II:
When we published the first volume of Getting to Smart Growth:
100 Policies for Implementation , we knew that there was an audience
for the practical information it contained . We were surprised to
learn just how big that audience was. Between January 2002, when
the publication was released, and September 2003, roughly 20,000
hardcopies were distributed and over 68,000 copies were down-
loaded. Requests for Getting to Smart Grow th came from develop-
ers , architects, planners and planning commissions, city and
county managers, mayors and council members, citizens, and real-
tors, as well people and groups less familiar with the movement
toward smarter growth. The document h as served as the organiz-
ing principle for conferences, has been required reading for aca-
demic coursework, has served as the basis of surveys, and has
informed city councils, planning committees, and smart growth
commission s across the country and around the world. It is even
being translated into Spanjsh . Clearly, there is a demand for infor-
mation that connects smart growth ideas with specific action.
Getting to Smart Growth II picks up where the first vo lum e left off.
Like its predecessor, this vo lum e shows that a wide variety of
smart growth tools, policies, and approaches are available to create
more li vab le commuillties. Each commuruty has its own unique set
of challenges, and smart growth demands a flexible response.
Volumes I and II offer a menu of options that can be mixed and
matched to fit local circumstances, local visions, and local va lu es.
100 MORE POLICIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
There are some key differences between the two vo lum es. First
and foremost, Getting to Smart Growth II presents all new policies.
And, while it contains many actions for the public sector, it
expands on our previous effort by also highlighting steps that the
private sector can take to promote more livable communities.
This volume is also more specific than the first. It discusses indi-
vidua l programs (occasionally specific applications of broader
ideas presented in the previous work) and emphasizes case studies
to show where the various policies, programs, and projects have
been successfu ll y implemented. In a few cases you will find poli-
cies that are totally new and await their first app lic ation. Finally,
in addition to "Practice Tips," we have included "Finance Tips"
that illustrate important financial aspects of getting smart growth
projects on the ground. These tips address a n important fact
about development: what gets financed is what gets built.
Smart growth projects are now being financed in record numbers.
Momentum for implementing smart growth continues to mount
in both the public and private sectors. The Congress for the New
Urbanism (CNU) estimates that between 2001 and 2002, the
number of smart growth developments increased by 26 percent,
and that by December 2002, 472 smart growth developments had
been completed. In another study, the CNU estimated that up to
one-third of the demand for new housing over the next coup le of
decades is likely to be for dense, wa lkabl e commuillties.
• GETTING TO SMART GROW TH II
SMART GROWTH
PRINCIPLES
1.
Mix land uses
2.
Take advantage of
compact building design
3.
Create a range of housing
opportunities and choices
4.
Create walkable communities
5.
Foster distinctive,
attractive communities
with a strong sense of place
6.
Preserve open space, farmland,
natural beauty, and cr itical
environmental areas
7.
Strengthen and direct
development toward existing
communities
8.
Provide a variety of
transportation ch oic es
9.
Make development
decisions predictable,
fair, and cost-effective
10.
Encourage community and
stakeholder collaboration
in development decisions
On the public side of the ledger, smart growth h as received signifi-
cant support. Seventeen governors iss ued 19 executive orders on
planning, smart growth, and related topics between 1999 and 200 1,
as compared with 12 orders issued during the previous eight years
combined. In the elections of ovember 2000 , there were 553 state
and loca l ballot measures related to some aspect of growth that
went before voters: 78.2 pe rc ent of open-space measures passed,
7 1.4 percent of economic-development measures passed, and 74. 7
percent of infrastructure measures were approved.
These positive tre nds reAect the be li ef that communities can do
more to ensure that deve lopment improves their economy, com-
munity, and environment. They are questioning the wisdom of
abandoning existing shopping centers only to have to later rebuild
them on areas that used to be farmland. They are unhappy with
development decisions that limit their choices and mobility by
forcing them to drive long distances in heavy traffic . They are
frustrated with current regulations that limit housing choices and
drive up housing costs. They are increasingly aware of th e tax and
local budget impacts of neg lecting existing infrastructure and
rebuildin g it on th e communjty fringe . Typicall y, these iss ues have
been debated in the form of growth-as-usual versus no-growth
debates. The problem is that neither option solves the probl ems.
The po pulari ty of smart growth stems in large part from its focus
on a more pragmatic question: "How a nd where s h o uld we
grow ?" By asking this question, communities have been able to
capmre the benefits of growth and to avoid many of its pitfalls.
Current budget problems and competitions between lo ca liti es for
tax r even ue h ave o nl y made the qu estion of how and where to
grow more important. Budget sh ortfall s m ean commuruties must
get th e most from every dollar invested while maximizing th eir
econ omic development potential. Many communiti es that iden-
tify oppormnities to reduce traffic, preserve open space, a nd make
better use of their tax dollars also find that outdated regulations,
perverse subs idi es, and ard uous approva l processes prohibit the
market from delivering. Fortunately, the same dynamics that
make smart growth popular a lso provide the political will to
remove barriers and let the market function.
Smart growth has been characterized in many ways, and some ini -
tiatives-such as directing growth away from certain areas with-
out identifying parcels a ppropriate for development, rugh-density
projects without a mix of uses, and large -scale r evitalization with-
out affordab le h ousin g-ha ve been incorrectly characterized as
smart growth in order to capitali ze o n tl1e popularity of tl1 e term.
Such irutiatives lack tl1e combination of tl1e m any smart growth
principles (see box) that create synergies and generate benefits.
The most successfu l commuillties take a multipronged approach
tliat incorporates many of smart growtl1's principles, and by doing
so, they achieve many of smart growtl1's goals. New development
adds value to the ex isti n g community. Localities get the most
from their investments. Residents have a variety of transportation
ch oices-walking, biking, transit, and driving-to get to conven-
ient amenities (e .g., sc hool s, shops, restaurants, and librari es) and
jobs located close to their homes. A mix of housing and neighbor-
hood types meets the needs of couples, singles, fanulies, and sen -
iors, thus fulfilling tli e many American Drea ms tli at exist in the
m a rket plac e.
One of the best indicators of the effectiveness ofVolwne I was the
number of e -mails and letters we received in praise of how the
book led to some m ea nin g ful action or poli cy change. We look
forward to h ea ring more st9ries and feedback from users of
Volume II. Please feel free to drop us a n e-mai l at
smartgrowth@icma.org. We hope you enjoy tliis vo lume and that
it helps to create a better furore in your commuruty and commu-
niti es across America.
•
Table of Contents
I. MIX LAND USES................................................................................ 1
II. TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPA CT BUILDING DE S IGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
III. CREATE A RANGE OF HOU S IN G OPPORTUNITIES AND C HOI CES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
IV. CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1
V. FO STER DISTIN CTIVE , ATTRA CTIVE COMMUNITIE S WITH A STRON G S EN S E OF PLA CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
VI. PRE S ERVE OPEN SPACE , FARMLAND , NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS . . . . . . . . . . 51
VII. STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIE S ........................... 6 1
VIII. PROVIDE A VARIE TY OF TRAN S PORTATION OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
IX. MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECI S ION S PREDICTABLE , FAIR , AND COST EFFECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1
X. ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS ............. 91
APPENDI X A: MATRI X-100 POLICIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION......................................... 100
APP E NDI X B: DIRECTOR Y OF S MART G ROWTH FUNDER S AND LENDIN G IN STITUTION S.................... 106
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
LI ST OF ACRONYM S............................................................................. 114
Chapter 1
Mix Land Uses
A variety of uses-residential, commercial,
open space, and institutional-is a critical
component of any vibrant community. It pro-
vides opportunity and convenience, and accom-
modates many household types and needs. A
mixed -use community enables a resident to
walk from the house to the corner store to pick
up some bread, grab a cup of coffee, or rent a
movie, all while heading home from a play date
with Fido in the dog park. This ease of walking
to several distinct yet interrelated businesses
and public places is the norm in a mixed-use
community.
One need not look far for examples. According
to a recent study by the Philadelphia Daily N ews ,
Philadelphia's Center City boasts the largest
number of downtown residents in the United
States who walk to work-38,000 people, com-
prising more than 50 percent of residents in
$MART G R OWTH
NETWORK
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
PRACTICE TIP :
Town center districts are flexible
zoning tools used in a variety of
communities. In older, established
towns and cities, town center dis-
tricts are adopted to create
incentives for developing or rede-
veloping in the downtown of a
central business district. In newer,
greenfield sites they are used to
create a unique, mixed-use, and
denser pattern of development
than the rest of the community.
Both applications seek to create
mixed-use communities through
zoning controls. Examples of
municipalities that have success-
fu I ly adopted town center dis-
tricts include Cary, North
Carolina; Washington Township,
New Jersey; Anchorage, Alaska;
and Swansea, Illinois.
This loft-style development in
Denver incorporates retail and
residential uses.
this area. 1 The study reveals that people who cannot afford or do
not want to own cars are among the biggest beneficiaries of mixed
land use developments. The proximity of houses to businesses
enables them to accomplish life's tasks without the added trans-
portation costs. The elderly can also benefit from mixed land uses.
Many seniors who live in commm1ities with segregated uses
depend on tax.is, buses, or neighbors and family members to drive
them to their daily routines. Those residing in mixed-use commu-
nities, on the other hand, can walk to grocery stores, beauty
salons, doctors, and social engagements, allowing them to lead
healthier and more independent lives.
It is in cities that people most commonly encounter a variety of
uses in their individual neighborhoods. However, the benefits of
mixed land uses can be achieved in a variety of settings, including
downtowns, city neighborhoods, suburban enclaves, and rural
towns. Suburban mixed-use communities like Reston Town
Center in Virginia and Miami Lakes Town Center in Florida have
become increasingly popular over the past decade and are one of
the hottest real estate trends in the United States today. During
the past 20 years, more than 30 mixed-use town centers have been
completed or are now being built across the country. Town centers
consistently surpass standard suburban real estate products in
office and retail lease rates, house sales and aparonent rents, retail
sales and sales tax revenues, hotel room and occupancy rates, and
onsite and adjacent property values.2 In addition, small cities, sub-
urbs, and other established communities are looking to retrofit key
parts of their communities. They have been strategically directing
investment to create mixed-use downtowns where none existed
before, and to create intensely developed mixed-use centers
focused arow1d transit.
The nationwide trend of developing mixed land use projects is evi-
dent in suburban communities and revitalized urban neighbor-
hoods. All interested parties, including real estate developers,
community residents, and government agencies, can benefit from
the attributes of a built environment that provides more options
for living, shopping, and working than conventional projects. The
previous volume of Getting to Sman Growth placed an emphasis on
removing the barriers to mixed use, especially zoning regulations,
so that residential, commercial, and institutional buildings could
legally exist within a single community. Adjusting zoning, how-
ever, is only one step to creating mixed-use opportunities and con-
necting a diversity of uses. Beyond changing the codes, adjusting
ordinances, and providing financial incentives, community objec-
tives to achieve a mix of land uses must be reflected in their com-
prehensive plans and in neighborhood-led plaiuung activities.
I.
Adopt comprehensive plans and sub-area plans that encourage
a mix of land uses.
Local governments generally update comprehensive plans every 5
to 10 years, depending on avai lable resources and political will.
These plans spell out the locality's goals for its future develop-
m ent. Including an ex pli cit goa l to in cr ease th e mix o f uses in s pe-
c ifi c a r eas ca n b e a n imp o rta n t s t e p in m ak in g it h a pp e n .
Compre h e n s ive plan s m ay inform infras tru c ture d ecis io n s and
econ o mi c deve lo pm e nt stra t egies tha t ca n b e use d to p ro m o t e
mix e d u ses. D ev el o per s can see more cl ea rly th e type o f d eve lo p-
ment th e loca li ty is loo kin g for and what is like ly t o be app rove d .
And , whe re confli cts ari se, th e co mpreh e nsive pl an is o ft e n n ee d ed
t o ju s ti fy a loca l gove rnm e nt 's ac ti o n -su c h as a r ezonin g
a pprova l , r equirem ents for housin g in a d o wntown area, and o ther
simil ar d ec isio ns .
In additi o n to upda tin g co mpre hensive pl an s mo r e r egularl y, man y
muni cipa liti es use sma ll er sub-ar ea pl an s t o sp ec ify d eve lo pm e n t
aim e d at ac hi evi n g a mix of u ses . For exa mpl e, H ou sto n , T exas, a
city with no fo rma l zo nin g co d es , appli es pe rform ance st and a rd s
t o en sure th at in comp atibl e u ses d o n o t exis t in mi xe d land u se
a r eas .3 T h e city a ppli es th ese perform an ce st a n da r ds in sm a ll e r
a r ea p lan s. Ea ch plan desc ri bes the ty p es o f u ses tha t ca n b e
loca t ed on a des ign at e d bl ock or n eighbo rh ood , and these u ses ar e
permitte d base d o n guid e lin es that sp ec ify an inte nd ed o utco m e,
su ch as en surin g th at r es id en ces are w ithin wa lkin g di st an ce t o
re t a il es t a bl is hm e nts o r th at o ff ice workers ca n access lun c h
o pti o ns with out h av ing t o use th eir ca r s.
In o th er co mmuni ties, suc h as Gra nd Ra pid s, M ic hi gan , ar ea-s pe-
c ifi c p lans are u sed to des ign ate lan d u ses o n a n e ig h bo rh ood leve l.
Area-s pec ifi c pl an s ass ign appro pri at e land uses, p ro m o t e co mpati -
bility betwe en n ew deve lo pment and th e exis tin g n e ighbo rh ood ,
and u se sta nda rd s and d es ign g uid e lin es t o m ake sure th at d eve l-
o pm e nt is co nsistent with th e co mpre he nsive pl an . T h e area-s pe-
cifi c plan ca n be u se d n o t o nl y to des ignat e th e mix ture o f land
u se s, but to also provid e a fram ewo rk for ho w th ose land us es will
b e d eve lo p e d . Fo r exa mpl e, th e N or th Eas t B e ltlin e J o int
D eve lo pm ent Pl an d esc rib es th e r e lati o nship o f res id e nti a l, co m-
m e rcial, and o ffi ce land uses alo n g an arte ri a l corrid or. A gra phi c
a nd acco mpan y in g t ex t d es ign a t es th e deve lo pment o f ce rta in
parcel s with multipl e land u ses . T hi s is diffe r ent fr o m st anda rd
pl an s that ge n erica ll y sh ow an area o f land t o be mix e d use with-
out li stin g t ec hniques by w hi c h th e mi x will b e accomplish e d .
W ith out thi s attenti o n to d e t ail , "mi xe d u se" a r eas m ay e nd up
be in g a r eas wh e r e uses ar e adj ace nt to o n e an o th er b ut ar e n o t
mi xe d fr o m a functi on al o r d es ign p er spec ti ve .
2.
Use enhanced zoning techniques to achieve a mix of land uses.
Ma ny citi es ba se pl annin g and deve lo pment deci sions o n outdate d
and antiquat ed zoning ordin ances. Cl eve land , D etro it, Mi lwa ukee,
and R och es t e r have all t aken necessary st e ps t o r ev ise th e ir in ef-
fec ti ve zo nin g o rdin an ces. For C hi cago and New Yo rk, a who le -
sa le zo nin g upd at e has been n ecessa r y t o res po nd to conte mporar y
develo pment patterns. Due t o the tim e and fin an cial co n straints of
co ndu ctin g a co mpre h e nsive zo nin g up da t e, m any co mmuniti es
r evise th eir zo nin g o rdin an ces in a pi ece m ea l fas hi o n t o acco mmo -
da te site -s pecifi c deve lo pments or n on co n fo r min g u ses . No m atter
th e m e th o d , zoning ordinan ce updates n ow ass ume a va ri ety of
a pproac h es . One exa mpl e is the fo rm-base d co d e, a regul a t ory
mech ani sm tha t sets r equirem ents for bui lding d es ign an d o ri enta -
ti o n wit h out bein g co n str ain ed by lis tin g pe r mi tted an d n on per-
mi t t e d u ses. Form -b ased co ding is fo und ed o n th e id ea th a t a
co mmuni ty's ph ysic a l fo rm , ra th e r th an its land u ses, is its m os t
in trin sic an d endurin g char ac teri sti c . Arlin gton Coun ty, Vi r gini a,
h as ado pted a fo rm -based co d e for r edeve lo ping its Colu mbi a Pike
Co rrid o r. In fo rm a ti o n rega rdin g thi s co d e is ava il a bl e a t
http://www.c o.a rlington .va.us .
T he city o f L argo, F lo rid a, m o difi ed its zo nin g with per for man ce
m eas ures. I t includ es a provi sion in its o rdinance to provid e zo n-
M I X LAND USES II
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
PRACTICE TIP:
The American Planning Association (APA) developed the Growing Smart
Legislative Guidebook of model codes and statutes for planning that can
help in deve loping mixed-use communities. The guidebook provides exam-
ples of how communities can update their codes, ordinances, and planning
techniques to encourage and facilitate land use development that is consis-
tent with smart growth principles. A significant part of the document cov-
ers issues related to state land use controls and the enforcement of land
development regulations. The guidebook also provides examples for coordi-
nating and streamlining their codes that can directly result in preserving
open space, increasing investment in existing communities, and enhancing
the feasibility of mixed land uses. For more information, contact the
American Planning Association at www.planning.org.
ing relief if certain aspects of
development have been estab-
lished and satisfied. For example,
reduced yard setbacks can result
in increased building heights.
The net result is that the devel-
opers are able to build denser
mixed land-use projects. Largo's
goal is to calibrate zoning pack-
ages to allow and even encourage
this type of development.4
Another example of innovative
zoning is the addition of a Town
Center Zoning District. This
type of zoning helps a city or
town revitalize a commercial dis-
trict or downtown, and works best as a component of a conven-
tional zoning ordinance. For example, the Village of Winfield,
Illinois, has successfully designed and adopted a Town Center
District that provides flexibility to encourage multiple land uses on
a single parcel (or a consolidated group of parce ls). Winfield's
Town Center District Plan includes design guidelines and bulk
regulations aimed at creating an area that is pedestrian friendly
and accommodates a mix of uses where businesses and housing
intersect. Thi s type of zoning district allows various uses and den-
sity types to exist in the same district without requiring variances
from a typically homogenous zoning district.
3·
Provide regional planning grants for projects that produce
mixed land use.
Regional planning grants can play a significant role in shaping the
redevelopment of communities to include a mix of land uses. Since
most suburban growth and development occurs as single uses on
large acreage, localities may have little capacity to consider new
forms of growth. Grants can provide the resources local govern-
ments need to innovate. Once they gain experience with these
types of projects and see examples on the ground, subsequent
projects become easier.
One example of this incentive is a program administered by the
Metropolitan Council of Minneapolis-St. Paul called Livable
Communities Oppornmity Grants. The program provides grants
to municipalities throughout the metropolitan region. Awards
range from $10,000 to $75,000 to support smart growth initiatives
before actual development. Funds support cleaning up polluted
land for redevelopment, marketing land for affordable housing, or
incorporating transportation options for developments. The rede-
velopment of a 40-plus-acre site for West Panhandle
Redevelopment in the community of Crystal promotes housing
choice, more efficient land use, transit opportunities, natural envi-
ronment enhancements, and increased livability. Other projects
include redeveloping the Little Asia strip in Brooklyn Center into
a mixed-use retail and residential development with an Asian
theme and architecture, as well as creating the Spruce Street
Development Plan for a 450-acre mixed -use site in the city of
Farmington's historic downtown .
Integrating design and development specifications, such as provid-
ing shops within walking distance of homes and offices, into the
grant-making process achieves a particular benefit for the commu-
ni ty. T he in ce ntive o f a gr ant progr a m e na bl es r egion al pl annin g
au thorities to sin gle o ut best practices an d entice o th er co m muni-
ti es to pro p ose p rojects tha t mee t th e gr an t para m et e r s. Even if
n ot all pro jects ar e fund ed , th e process may still in spi re communi-
ti es to und e rtake mixe d-use d eve lo pments .
4·
Encourage the redevelopment of single uses into
mixed-use developments.
Sin gle -use di stri cts a r e a h a llm ark of current d eve lo pme n t p a t-
te rns-so mu ch so th at th e n ames th emse lves te ll the story: strip
ce nters, o ffi ce p arks, indus tri a l p a r ks, e nte rta inm e nt di s tri c t s,
mall s . C r ea ting a mix of u ses in these single -use ar eas is a fu nda-
me ntal c hall en ge an d trem en do us o ppo rtuni ty. I t is an o pportun ity
beca u se of th e p o t e n t i a l to m a ke b e tter u se of in fras truc t ure '
in crease th e va lu e of th e inves tmen ts, and provide mo r e co n ve n-
ie n ce fo r th e u se r s o f these deve lopm ents; a ch all e n ge beca u se
r etro fittin g is diffi cult. H oweve r, communiti es, seeing the po t en-
t ial ben e fit s, ar e t alcin g on th e c hall en ge .
T h e state o f New J er sey's Offi ce o f Sm art Growth seeks t o ad dress
thi s iss u e throu gh its L o cal Ass istan ce Planning Grants as part o f
its S tate D eve lo pm e nt a nd R e d eve lo pm e nt Pl a n. Th ese n ew
gra nts p rovi de des ign and t ec hni ca l guid ance to loca l governments
interest e d in t ra n sfo rming sin gle -purpose sites in to mi xed-u se
ce nte rs. T h e st at e provides d es ign guid e lin es and tec hnica l assis -
t ance t o lo c a l gove rnme nts that ar e inte r es t e d in this typ e o f
d evelo pm en t.5 T h e borou gh o f Woodr id ge, New J ersey, rece ive d a
pl annin g grant t o re d eve lo p a 150-acr e site con ta ining th e 36-acr e
C urtiss -Wr ight militar y aircra ft wareh ou se into a mi xe d-use tra di -
ti o nal n eighbo rhood . The st at e ha s also es tabli shed a G overnor s
Aw ard P rogra m to hi ghli ght su ccess ful exa mples .
5·
Accommodate the reuse of closed, decommissioned, or obsolete
institutional uses.
Vas t , o utdat e d in stituti o n a l stru ctur es, su c h as a ir p orts, mil it ary
bases, and h os pita ls ar e bein g tran sfo rmed into hubs o f multiuse
ac tiviti es . T hese includ e St a pl e t o n Ai rp o rt in D e n ve r, th e J o li e t
Arsen al o u ts id e C hj cago, and ar eas of th e Ba ltim o r e Inne r Harbor.
For su ch d eve lo pment proj ects to occur, gove rnments n ee d to be
creati ve in ch an ging zo ning and d evel o pm ent gujdelines . In sev-
er al cases , th e p rojects a r e of such a large size an d co mpl exity th at
a n e w zo ning d ist r ict must be cr a fte d to pro m o t e va ri ed u ses
within th e dereli c t air p ort o r th e d eco mmiss io n ed military base.
For exa mple, the introd u cti o n of n ew zo ning di stricts h as all owed
th e r edeve lo pm e n t of St a pl eton , D en ve r 's lo n gtim e airpo rt, into a
mi xe d -u se dist r ict t h at inclu des p e d es tri an-fr ie n d ly r es ide n ces,
st o r es, an d co mmercia l u ses . O th er p rojec ts m ay r equire special
pl anning e ffo rts t o coordinat e the r eu se o f en vironmentally se nsi-
tive lan ds o r t o es t a bli sh a m arketing pl an t o r e d eve lo p th e site.
No m a tte r th e p rojec t , coord in a ti o n a m o n g esse ntial d eci si o n
makers, r egul at ors, and landown ers is critica l. As these sites are
r ed eve lo pe d , th eir mixture o f u ses sh ould be integra t ed into the
exis tin g fa bri c o f th e co mmunj ty an d its enviro nm ent. New stree t s
fo r the St a pl eton pro jec t a re des ign e d to connec t and ali gn with
street s of exis tin g n e igh borh oods. Build ings, especiall y those alon g
stre ets tha t make up the b oundari es o f the projec t , r e fl e ct and
co mpl em e nt th e sty le and des ig n fea tures o f th ose of n ea rby co m-
m unities . T hi s en sures con tinuity between existin g structures and
the Stapl e t on p roject.
MIX LAND USES II
PRAC TI CE TI P:
Jn light of ec onomi c hard ship s,
cities have bee n looking to create
new opportunities in old and tra-
ditional l a nd us e patterns. For
in st ance, th e city of Sa n Franci sco
h as r ece ntl y co nv er te d vac a nt
downtown office spac e-a legacy
of the recent dot.co m bu st -into
ho usin g. Some cr iti cs st at e t hat
t he $25 0 per squ are foot cost of
conv ers ion w i ll r esult in un afford-
abl e housin g. Yet, proponents note
th at an in c r ease i n the hou sin g
supply will pro vi de mor e option s
for do w nt own res id e nts and
attract much-needed service s,
such as groc ery st or es, to th e
do w ntown a r ea . In Ca mbridg e,
Mas sachu se tts, indu stri a l build -
ings are being adapted into hous-
ing and reta il uses. Modern pro -
duction proce sse s and pol l ution
cont rol te chnologi es have made it
easie r for some indust r ial and re s-
i denti a I uses to coexist.
Ca mbrid ge is exploring opportuni -
tie s to mix land uses within exi st -
ing industrially zoned di stricts.
• GETT I NG TO SMART GROW T H 11
Mixing uses can be facilitated when
buildings can be used as easily for
residences as they can for busi-
nesses. Upper Marlboro, Maryland.
6.
Provide incentives for ground-floor retail and upper-level
residential uses in existing and future development.
Urban, suburban, and rural communities are realizing the benefits
of mixing land uses, especially for those developments that com-
bine residential and commercial uses in proximity to each other.
This form of mixed-use development can be particularly attractive
because it can provide more sales opportunities for local mer-
chants, convenience for residents, and nearby housing for retail
workers. Whjle this type of development is common in some parts
of the country, other communities are now just discovering its
benefits. The city of Phoenix hopes to create dynamic commercial
and mixed-use corridors and communities, and is currently look-
ing at such examples in the Los Angeles area as models to increase
the density and mixture of uses for some of its prominent thor-
oughfares.6
Some localities believe that this type of development is such a vital
component to their quality of life and
economic competitiveness that they have
taken steps to spur its creation. The city
of Santa Cruz, an affluent community of
over 50,000 on California's Monterrey
Bay, has established a redevelopment
agency to catalyze development in its
commercial districts. One recently com-
pleted project, 1010 Pacific Apartments,
includes 70 market-rate housing units, 40
affordable units, nearly 10,000 square feet
of first-floor retail, and 100 bicycle
spaces. The project used tax increment
financing, low-income tax credits, and
deferred impact fees to finance the development.7 Redevelopment
agencies have been utilized throughout California to lead develop-
ment efforts and have been critical in realizing tl1e potential for
financing mixed-use projects .
Elgin, Illinois, a city of 93,000 located approximately 35 miles
northwest of Chicago, is undergoing a major rebirth and revital-
ization by focusing its efforts on reinvigorating its downtown
through city-sponsored financial incentives. Though not run
tl1rough a redevelopment agency, the city offered tax abatement,
fai;:ade improvement programs, and dollars for site improvements,
such as upgrading roads and utilities. Since 1999, the city com-
pleted 10 separate rehabilitation projects downtown, bringing resi-
dents back to this once empty part of the city. These projects
mostly focused on updating and modernizing underused commer-
cial properties for residential and retail development.
7·
Locate neighborhood stores in residential areas.
Conventional subdivisions often designed with cul-de-sacs and
winding roads force residents to drive into tl1eir development and
then drive out again whenever they need to shop for even the
smallest item, such as a carton of milk. Developers and local gov-
ernments are starting to look at alternatives that include conven-
ience shopping within walking distance of residential develop-
ment. This arrangement can cut traffic and air pollution, make the
neighborhood more convenient, and give neighbors another
opportw1jty to meet one anotller.
Most residential subdivisions include a public passive open space
or a community gathering area such as a plaza or a landscaped
entrance feature. Other developments may include tennis courts
or a pool. With a little bit of planning and some creative redesign,
any of these public spaces can be reconfigured to include a small
convenience store.
T h e new town of Columbi a, Maryland, features a version of this
idea. Columbi a was developed as a series of villages that included
residences and a centra ll y located village square containing com-
mercial, office, and public uses such as a school or swimming pool.
Each resident li ves no more than a mile from the village center
and the amenities it provides; residents can walk, bike, or drive to
village center services.
Localities can actively encourage convenience retail or restaurants
by asking developers to include land in their plans for such ameni-
ties. However, the viability of sma ll stores and restaurants is predi-
cated in large part by having an adequate number of residences
within proximity. Therefore, when loca liti es seek to encourage such
retail development they should be prepared to discuss density
bonuses that will make those ventures more likely to succeed.
8.
Use floating zones to plan for certain types of
undetermined uses.
F lexibi li ty in development decision is critical for local government
age n cies as well as for private developers in encouraging innova-
tive development. Innovative zoning tools such as planned unit
developments (PUDs) and overlay districts have resu lted in a mul-
titude of creative mixed -use projects. T h ese tools are based on
providing flexibility within a designated zoning district. The dis-
trict may be a PUD, whi ch all ows for a mix of uses and relaxation
of setback and bulk regulations while emphasizing design conu·ol
and preferences, or it may be an overlay zone, which supplements
an existing zoning district.8 Alternatively, the community may
illdicate "fl oati ng" zones, which are zo nes that are defined in the
zoning ordinance, but not used for a particular location until
enacted for a specific project. F loati n g zones are "dropped" onto a
zon in g map to provide a commun ity with greater flexibility in
locating partic ul ar uses. In most cases, municipalities apply float-
in g zones when the anticipated development is not yet known.
These unspecified areas are a way to designate a discrete area
without having to rezone an entire district or series of parcels .
MIX LAND USES •
A vibrant Philadelphia neighbor-
hood that includes residences
above an Italian market.
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
Ames, Iowa; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and Montgomery County,
' Maryland , use floating zones to designate parcels for mixed-use
development. Ames uses three types of floating zones: village resi-
dential, suburban residential, and residential low density. Each of
these floating zones provides for additional development within a
larger district that allows greater densities or the location of retail
and affordable housing nearby or, in some cases, on the same zon-
ing lot. The possibilities for using floating zones are nearly as end-
less as the possible locations for applying floating zones.
9 ·
Organize a variety of land uses vertically and horizontally.
Sometimes the most effective mix of uses occurs within the same
building. Noise can be a problem for downtown housing, particu-
larly at the street level. Some localities that have sought to
increase housing in their downtown areas have encouraged street-
level retail, second-and third-story offices, and residential devel-
opment on top levels.
In September 2002, Washington, D .C., introduced an initiative to
encourage developers to build vertically rather than horizontally.9
The city's Department of Planning drafted a publication called
Trans-Formation: Recreating Transit-Oriented Neighborhood Centers
in Washington, DC: A Design Handbook for Neighborhood R esidents.
The purpose of the publication was to illustrate ways to encourage
transit-oriented development through design innovation and
enhancements. Vertical development, which in many communities
consists of at least six stories, can be achieved by incorporating
additional permitted uses in zoni11g districts or by provid ing den-
sity bonuses for developments that include a mixture of uses on
one site. A jurisdiction can even offer financial incentives when a
development includes one or more elements of a mixed-use devel-
opment. These incentives might be tax abatements or increased
dollars for fa~ade improvement programs or site preparation and
review proceedings .
IO.
Develop mixed-use university districts.
Colleges and universities are important landmarks and institutions
in the cities and towns in which they are located . They are major
employers and often house hundreds of student residents on-site.
Campuses are also part of a larger, existing neighborhood. More
and more universities are deve loping new master plans that call
for creating more attractive transitions into neighborhoods as well
as providing the student body and nearby residents with mixed-
use amenities such as restaurants and retail.
Schools can take several approaches to incorporating a greater
mix of uses into their campuses. In some instances, the school can
use its real estate holdings to create mixed use centers. At the
University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, the school has con-
structed Sansom Common, a 305 ,000-square-foot mixed-use
development, which is part of the 2001 Campus Development
Plan. The project is anchored by a university bookstore and also
houses the Inn at Penn, an adjoining 259-room hotel, and 54,000
square feet of additional retail and restaurants. Graduate student
housing will also be constructed as part of the project.10
Universities can also help to ensure that the new dormitories they
build serve a number of functions. At Oregon's Portland State
University, a $49 million student housing and mixed-use facility is
under construction. The project will include one floor each of
retail and classroom space, and eight floors of student housing
with 384 studio apartments.11
Finally, universities can work with local planners to support the
goals of the community at large . In 1994, plagued by blight and
safety conce rns, the Ohio State University in Columbus estab-
lished a University Area Improvement Task Force composed of
faculty, staff and students, un ive rsity community organizations,
and the city of Columbus. The task force established a n ew non -
profit redevelopment corporation, Campus Partners, to prepare a
revita lization plan for t h e University District. In 1996, after
working with representa tives of community organi zations, local
government officia ls, and university officials, Campus Partners
re leased the University Neigh borhoods Revitali zation P lan . The
University, in partnership with the local government, developed
250 recomm e ndations-including improvin g student r ental hous-
ing, increasing the level of homeownership in the University
District, and revitalizing the retail market serving these neighbor-
hoods . A maj o r proj ect, the South Campus Gatewa y, is expected
In the new urbanist development of
Kentlands in Gaithersburg,
Maryland, residents can choose to
reside in live-work units.
to open in the summe r of 2005. According to Campus Partne rs ,
the South Campus Gateway may be the largest mix ed-use urban
re d evelopm ent proj e ct eve r attempted in central Ohio.12
M ark Al an Hugh es, "Phil ad elphi a's Va lu a bl e Foot Fetish ," Philadelphia
Daily News, M ay 20 , 200 3.
C harl es L ockw ood , "Raisin g th e Bar : Town Cente rs are Ou t pe r fo rming
Traditi on al Suburba n Rea l Estate P rodu cts," Urban Land Magaz ine,
F e bruary 2003.
F o r d etail s, see C iry o f Houston, D e paron ent o f Pl annin g and
D eve lo pm ent, http://www.ci.houston.tx .us/pl annin g .hm1.
Fo r d etail s, see C iry o f L argo, C o mmuni ry D eve lo pment De part m ent,
http://www.l ar go .co m/ind ex.c fm?acti o n=d e pt&drill =co mmuni ty.
Paul Drake, New Jersey State Office o f Smart G row t h, pho ne
co nve rsa ti o n, August 18, 200 3.
6 J o n T alton , "H o w Comm e rcial Arte ri es in L.A. Stay H ea lth y,"
Arizona Republic, April 29, 200 3 .
E uge ne Arn e r, C ity o f Sa nta C ru z, Department o f Pl anning and
C o mmuni ty D evelopment, e-mail , May I , 200 3.
Bo b Kindred , C ity o f Am es, Iowa, D eparanent o f C o mmuni ty
D eve lo pm ent, ph o ne co nv ersa tion , M ay I , 2003.
9 W as hington, D.C., D e partm ent o f Pl anning:
http://www.pl anning .d c.gov/do cum ents/pdf/Trans-Principl e5.pdf.
10 See http://www.elkus-m anfredi.com/san som.hm1l.
11 Sh eil a Baco n. "Po rtl and State U niv ersi ty's Broa d way H o usin g Crea ti ve
Finan cin g Sp ee ds up Process." Se ptembe r 2003 . http ://n o rthwest.
constru ction.co m/fea tures/a rchi ve/0 309 _F ea ture I .as p
12 Ca mpus F arme rs, The Ohi o Stat e University. See http://www.os u.edu/
org/osucp/index.hanl.
MIXED LAND USE •
PRACTICE TIP:
Beyond the National Trust for
Historic Preservation's Main
Street Program, many local, state,
and federal programs exist to direct
funds for downtown and commer-
cial district revitalization . Many
villages and cities, such as Santa
Cruz, California, have a
Redevelopment Authority or a
Redevelopment Division of the
Department of Community or
Economic Development. Statewide
programs, funding through a
Department of Commerce and/or
Community Affairs can leverage
additional grants that are avai 1-
ab le. These funds can support pro -
grams that ensure combined retail
and residential land uses.
Chapter 2
Tal<e Advantage of Compact
Building Design
J\ !though compact building desi gn and den-
.r-\sity ar e often m e t with stiff r es ist an ce in
communiti es, changes in consumer preference
and demographics are creating a d e mand for
qu a li ty hi g h e r-d e n si ty h o u s in g produ c t s and
n e i g hbo rh ood s . R ecent surveys su ggest th a t
Am e ri ca n s prefe r a w id e r a rray o f h o u s in g
ch o ic es, includin g condo miniums, duplexes o r
townho m es, and sin g le -fa mil y de t ac h e d ho u s-
in g , th an con ve n t i o n a ll y b e li eve d. S imil a rl y,
Am e ri ca n s pre fer a di vers ity of n eighbo rhood
types, in parti cular th ose with shops and serv-
ices w ithin wa l k in g di s t a n ce .1 Acco rding t o
an oth er r ece nt s urvey, 63 per ce n t o f Am erica n s
wou ld li ke to wa lk to stor es an d o th e r pl aces.2
T h e same survey also fo und th at 54 percent of
Am e ri ca n s b e li eve d th at th e r e were t oo few
sh ops or restaur an ts within wa lkin g d ista nce o f
the ir homes.
$MART GROW T H
NETWORK
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
Compact development helps create
communities with a variety of uses
and transportation options.
Higher-density development is a key
element to creating walkable com-
munities and providing more trans-
portation options. From a retail
standpoint, more density means
more customers. A neighborhood
that includes more compact develop-
ment can support more stores and
restaurants within its boundaries.
Density also fosters more trans-
portation choices. More riders in the
same area mean that bus or rail serv-
ice becomes more viable and con-
venient. Whereas a low-density
development may only justify a stop
on the development's edge, a development with more people may
attract a central transit stop within a short walking distance for all
residents.3 The transportation choices created by density offer
people the freedom to select from a variety of transportation
modes-walking, bicycling, mass transit, automobile transit-to
complete their daily routines, such as commuting to work or
school, running errands, and taking their kids to daycare.
Higher-density development can also contribute to a wider range
of housing choices. Higher-density projects can reduce per-unit
construction cusLs, allowing developers more flexibility to
respond to the market and, thus, offer a range of housing types to
a variety of consumers. Young singles can find smaller units with
convenient access to entertainment, families can seek large yards
and multiple bedrooms, and retirees who are tired of maintenance
can downsize their yards in favor of housing with more amenities
and services. Providing these options in the same neighborhood
enables residents to change housing arrangements without having
to move from the community. For households with limited
income, higher densities mean more housing choices at different
price points.
Consumer desires for convenient neighborhoods with many
amenities, as well as public sector efforts to address traffic and use
public resources efficiently, are creating increased interest in
more compact development. The following policies and strategies
offer a number of ways to support compact building design within
a community.
I.
Organize a compact development endorsement program.
Many community members voice displeasure with development
plans during the development process. However, with the emer-
gence of smart growth, many organizations, from affordable
housing advocates to environmental groups, are now supporting
quality-development proposals. The Greenbelt Alliance supports
quality projects through their Compact Development
Endorsement Program. The alliance hopes that
the program will make the development process easier for
smart growth developers and thereby promote future develop-
ment initiatives.
The alliance endorses and supports residential, mixed-use, and
co mmercial developments that are pedestrian-oriented and transit-
accessible, use land efficiently, and provide affordable housing in
the Bay Area.4 Alliance staff members use a variety of criteria to
review potential endorsements. These criteria include housing
affordability, pedestrian friendliness, and project density. After
meeting the criteria, a developer receives a letter of support and
active endorsement at public hearings and other forums.
In 2001, the alliance lent its support to the Gateway Senior
Project in Santa Clara, a 42-unit apartment development .
Located in the city center, the project will encourage walking and
the use of transit. A train depot located five blocks away, near
shops and services, is also on the property. One hundred percent
of the dev elopment will comprise housing units built according to
a compact design concept. In addition, the architectural motif of
the project will be modeled after the 1930s Mission Revival style
so that the housing units will fit in with existing neighborhood
structures.5
2.
Adopt a cottage housing development zoning ordinance.
In communities across the cow1try, rising demand accompanied by
changing demographics is making the cost of housing too expen-
sive for many citizens. As a result, officials are exploring various
remedies to encourage development of additional housing without
sacrificing the character of their respective communities. Many
such communities are rediscovering the virtues of cottage housing
and are implementing new ordinances called cottage housing
development (CHD) zoning ordinances, which are designed to
facilitate development of these time-honored housing types.
Cottage houses are single-family detached units, usually less than
1,000 square feet in size, that incorporate many of the amenities
associated with conventional single-family detached housing.
Because of the style and size of cottage houses, developers can
Third Street Cottages in Langley,
Washington, provide affordable
housing opportunities and use
only a third of the land required
under the original ordinances.
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DES I GN Ill
cluster cottage housing onto smaller parcels of land without sacri-
ficing the feel and character of detached housing. A CHD ordi-
nance facilitates development of these units by designating spe-
cific zones in the community where housing may be constructed
within a specified range of footprints. Within such zones, com-
munity officials may work with developers to establish applicable
densities and design amenities.
The community of Langley, Washington, a small town situated
on Whidbey Island in Puget Sound, is already reaping the bene-
fits of its recently implemented CHD ordinance. In the early
1990s , development pressures stemming from the nearby Seattle
region offered new vitality to the Langley community but threat-
ened to overwhelm its rural character. Conseq uen ti y, in 199 5,
community officials adopted the region's first CHD ordinance to
cluster additional housing comfortably into higher-density CHDs
built according to tl1e style of the surrounding village. Under the
ordinance, housing built in the district could be clustered up to
12 units an acre and constructed on footprints between 650 and
97 5 square feet. Each unit would be fully detached and could
incorporate many of the amenities found in larger housing types.
To the surprise of some, local developers quickly capitalized on
the new ordinance to create some of the most appealing housing
in the area. The Third Street Cottages, the first development to
emerge under the ordinance, quickly garnered admiration from
local villagers and prospective purchasers alike. The units provide
a variety of new housing to local buyers while consuming only a
third of the land required under the original ordinances.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
PRACTICE TIP:
Conservation subdivisions have
become a popular tool to preserve
open space. Ho wever, they should be
used with care as they may lead to
further separation of uses and
increased dependence on automo-
biles and, in some cases, may spur
leap-frog development, which fur-
ther consumes land for develop-
ment. In the context of a larger
vision for the community, conserva-
tion subdivisions can play a vital
role, but as a piecemeal tool or
solution they should be avoided.
3·
Use compact development coupled with onsite best manage-
ment practices to improve environmental outcomes.
Compact development offers environmental benefits. By support-
ing greater transportation choices, higher densities can contribute
to improvements in regional air quality. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) projected that Atlantic Station, a
higher-density infill development in midtown Atlanta, will gener-
ate 33 percent fewer emissions in comparison to the same devel-
opment built at lower densities and located in a greenfield.6
Research also suggests that higher-density development can play
an integral role in protecting water resources. Specifically, by
consuming less land, higher-density development leaves lands free
that would otherwise be developed, and such land can continue to
perform its ecological functions.
A 1995 study by the Soutl1 Carolina Coastal Conservation League
examined the water-quality impacts of two development alterna -
tives for the 583-acre Belle Hall site in Mount Pleasant, South
Carolina. The results concluded that tlie conventional low-den-
sity scenario consumed eight times more open space and gener-
ated 43 percent more runoff, four times more sed im ent, almost
four times more nitrogen, and three times more phosphorous
than the more compact, town-centered scenario .7
In some cases, however, compact development can create "hot
spots" of pollution or adversely impact critical environmenta l
areas if located in the wrong place. Best management practices
(BMPs) can mitigate developmental impacts on adjacent environ-
mental resources and reduce pollution originating from the devel-
oped area. There are many BMPs avai labl e to communities,
including buffer zones, narrower residential streets, and tree
planting, and wh en incorporated into compactly designed areas,
these can address any increased pollution.8
4·
Use traditional neighborhood design.
Mixed-use, pedestrian-friend ly, compact developments are not
new phenomena. These "traditional neighborhood design"
(TND) developments were the predominant urban form in the
U.S. up to and tl1rough World War II.9 The origina l TND devel-
opments are still found in urban and rural locations such as
Seattle, Washington, and Danville, Indiana, respective ly. The
Capitol Hill neighborhood in Seattle offers residents the oppor-
tunity to walk to Volunteer Park or grab a cup of coffee along
15th Street; the town square in Danville provides neighborhood
meeting places, such as the public library and Mayberry Cafe .
However, from the mid-l 940s to today, tlie predominant devel-
opment pattern across the country has been single-use, low-den-
sity, and auto-dependent designs characterized by pods of com-
mercial, retail, office, and residential development. This new
form of development has replaced lively neighborhoods with
stretches of residential, commercia l, and retail pockets. Within
these contexts, compact development can impose unacceptable
costs because tl1e design, infrastructure, mix of uses, transporta-
tion options, and other features that make density (and, more
broadly, development) work well are not in place. Retrofitting
existing neighborhoods and creating new ones with T D can
help re-create functioning neighborhoods tliat benefit the econ-
omy, community, and environment.
TND involves developing neighborhoods that have definite cen-
ters and edges, a mix of destimtions within a short walk, a diver-
sity of housing types and styles, and access to public transit.10
5·
Use compact design to create more secure neighborhoods.
Well-designed compact developments can foster the se n se of
safety and security that every person desires in their community.
By incorporating fr o nt porches, attractive co mmon open space,
and n arrow streets with sid ewa lk s into new or existi ng develop-
ments, the community promotes safety and security by means of
its own activity. This type of crime prevention is r eferred to as
"eyes on the street," and is based on th e id ea that an active com -
munity with people using the streets and watching the streets
from their homes or yards ca n deter street crime. Jane Jacobs, the
noted observer of neighborhood function, pointed out the crime-
prevention benefits of density and compact building design in the
early 1960s. She described the virtues of compact design as a
means for providing a criti ca l mass of individuals to use the
streets, parks, and public spaces of the city.11
Throughout the country, neighborhood planners and community
activists ha ve begun to promote crime prevention through envi -
ronmenta l design, or CPTED, in orde r to e n gage residents in
endeavors to create safer communities. T h e establi shment of
defensible space, a key component of CPTED, occurs when com -
munity residents take an interest in their surroundi n gs and adopt
community policing initi atives. In an existing neighborhood, this
means enacting traffic-calming measures and providing or
enhancing semiprivate courtyards t o encourage residents to
gath er and, subsequently, monitor their surrou ndin gs. In pro-
posed neighborhoods, streets should be narrow to encourage con-
tact a m ong neighbors. CPTED uses design to minimize the
opportuniti es for crimes to be committed.
Police stations around the U.S. ar e employing CPTED strategies
to prevent crim e. In the city of Norfolk, Virginia, 144 neighbor-
TAKE ADVANTAGE DF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN II
Denver, Colorado's Lower Downtown neigh-
borhood has been successfully renovated
from an underused warehouse district into a
vibrant, compact destination .
hoods encompassin g 40,000 residents are part of the police
department's "Block Security" program . This program incorpo-
rates the principles of CPTED and also includes site-plan reviews
that focus on security issues, neighborhood watch programs, and
a citizen security counci l. In an analysis of crim e data, Norfo lk
found a 30 percent decrease in the burglary rate for areas in the
block security program as compared with other areas in the city.12
6.
Subdivide vacant warehouse space into residential units.
One of the biggest trends from the second half of the 1990s and
to the 2000s is the conversion of abandoned and vacant ware -
h ouses into compact residential units. Most cities that experi-
enced wareh ou se conversions during this time are located east of
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
PRACT ICE TIP :
For case studies on big boxes in
urban areas, see Better Models for
Superstores by Constance Beaumont.
Available from the National Trust for
Hi stor ic Preservation.
the Mississippi River (e.g., Baltimore, Pittsburgh, and Chicago),
but some jurisdictions, like Minneapolis and Denver, have also
seen entire neighborhoods revitalize when derelict warehouses
were reused as housing.
Most of these warehouse districts, like Chicago's Near West Side
and Denver's LoDo, or Lower Downtown, neighborhoods, have
capitalized on their proximity to downtown by welcoming a wea lth
of new residents and businesses to these long-neglected sectors of
the city. The city benefits by being able to put these structures
back on the tax rolls, and with the extra income, residents, who get
to live in a hip new area, enjoy maintained and improved munici-
pal services. The other positive enhancement for the city is that
the infrastructure for these buildings already exists. There can be
lower outlay for streets and utilities in lieu of estab lishing n ew
buildable sites. A majority of all warehouse conversions results in
higher densities of residential living than the development of sin-
gle family homes or many other types of projects.
Minneapolis's Mill District, which in the 1920s and 1930s was the
largest flour mill district in the counuy and was home to compa-
nies like Gold Medal and Pillsbury, now hosts many young sin-
gles, restaurants, and retail establishments . In the Mill District,
which also includes the historic North Star Woolen Mill and the
Crosby Washburn Mill Complex, city officials are using tax incre-
ment financing and other public funds to pay for public redevel-
opment activity. Since most warehouse conversions are compli-
cated ventures that might include brownfields or other remedia -
tion issues, it is important to develop a master plan for these
properties and seek public-private partnerships to ensure that
market demands and public requirements are satisfied. I J
7·
Ensure that big box stores locating in existing urban centers
are appropriately scaled and designed.
Big box stores, which typically range in size from 90,000 to
2 5 0,000 square feet, are popular shopping destinations for
American consumers. Large inventories and low prices tend to
drive the demand . Between 2001 and 2002, sales at warehouse
clubs and superstores increased by $27.5 billion, or 16.7 per-
cent. I4 Between 1970 and 1998, retail space per capita increased
from 32 to 38 square feet per person-a ga in of 20 percent over
the past 27 years-as a result of the growth of superstores and
power centers.15 Architecturally, these stores are typically charac-
terized by windowless, standardized, one-story buildings with an
ample supp ly of parking-hence the moniker "big box."
While it is crucial for communities to thoroughly review th e pros
and cons of big box retailing, including the impacts it may have
on small businesses, it is also clear that many consumers have an
appetite for it. While most big box establishments are located in
the urban fringe, residents in urban areas are increasingly looking
for compact versions of these stores. In addition, by encouraging
these national chains to locate in older retail districts rather than
suburban greenfields, it is possible to draw more customers to
downtown areas.
To make i\1ain Street big box retail successful, communities need
to ensure that new stores complement the existing retail district.
There are design techniques that local governments may want
to consider.
• Prohibit blank walls. Allow no uninterrupted length of any
facade in excess of 100 horizontal feet . If a facade is greater
than 100 feet in length, it must incorporate recesses and projec-
ti on s al on g at leas t 20 per ce nt of th e len gth o f th e faca de.
Win dows, awnin gs, and arca des mu st t ota l at least 60 pe rce nt o f
th e faca de length a bu t tin g a publi c street.
• All faca des o f a buildin g that are visi ble fro m ad joining pro per -
ti es or publi c stree ts sh ould co ntribute t o the pl easi n g sca le
fea tures o f th e buil din g and en courage co mmuni ty integra ti on
by featuring ch ar acte ri sti cs sim.i lar to a fro nt facade.
• D o n o t loca t e m or e than 50 percent o f th e o ff-stree t parkin g
ar ea be tw ee n th e fr ont faca de of th e building and th e primary
ab u tti n g street .16
8 .
Create compact office parks and corporate campuses.
I n m any ar eas, office parks are iso lat ed p o ds of co m me rcial or
industri al deve lo pm e nt surro und ed by grass or trees and p arkin g
lo ts that are linked t o o th er offi ce buildings by a windin g service
roa d. Di sconnec t e d fr o m an y co mmuni ty fab r ic, th ese pl aces
r equire th at workers dri ve to ge t lun ch or run err an ds . Acco rdin g
to a 2000 survey iss u ed by the Brookin gs Instituti on , th e suburban
share o f o ffi ce sp ace grew fr om 26 percent in 1979 t o 42 per ce nt in
1999. The survey also found th at by 1999 , 3 7 per ce nt o f all offi ce
space was fo und in hi ghl y di sperse d , "e dge less " loca ti on s.17
Se pa r atin g o ffice ac ti vity fr o m r es id en ces and co mm e rcial areas
can cr ea t e a jobs-ho u sin g imb alan ce . T h e con se qu en ces o f thi s
ar e r ea dil y a pp a rent: co mmuters sp end h ours in tra ffi c t o rea ch
iso lated o ffi ce d es tin ati o n s, arteria l roa d ways are ja mme d at
lun ch ti m e, and wo rke rs have n o n ear by a m eniti es. To dea l wi th
th ese iss u es a nd t o c r ea t e a m o r e in viting e n vironm e nt fo r
empl oyer s and employees, compani es around the country ar e
lookin g at m or e integr at ed approac h es t o o ffi ce par ks. T hey ar e
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DES IGN II
conn ectin g jo b ce nters t o n earby train st ati on s with fee d er buses.
Office pa rks ar e becomin g pl aces wh ere peo pl e ca n li ve an d shop
as we ll as wo rk. R ather th an buildin g de tac hed , sin gle st ory office
buildings, co mpanies ar e see in g the adva ntage of locatin g in mo re
co mpa ct areas that support a r an ge of am eniti es.
In Pl an o, Texas, a city 20 mil es fr om D a ll as, Legacy Town Center
h as been con stru cted as an a lte rn ative to th e tra di tiona l office
p ark. More th an 32 ,0 00 p eo pl e work in the area, and it is t h e
h ome t o th e he adqu arte rs o f E lectron.i c D ata Sys t e ms, Frito L ay,
a nd AT&T W ireless .
R ecognizin g that empl oyees ar e tired of lo ng co mmu tes an d ar e
lookin g for a better qu ali ty of li fe, th e busin esses of Legacy and
the city of Plan o embarke d on the deve lo pm e nt o f a t own ce nter
in th e middl e of th e ex.isti n g busin ess park. T he pedestrian-ori-
ented Town Center sits o n 155 ac res within th e 2,660 -ac re office
pa r k and has over 600 un.i ts o f h o usin g, a child deve lo pment cen-
t er, a 57,000-square-foot fitn ess ce nter, and sh o pping, res t aura nts,
and o ther am enities . To acco mm odate th e va riety o f u ses, th e city
o f Pl ano c rea t ed a "mixe d-use Town Center " zo n.in g type fo r th e
ar ea. U nd e r th.i s des igna ti on , special atten tion is paid to set-backs,
g r ee n s pace, and ar chitectu ra l d es ign .
Majo r pl aye rs in th e r ea l es t at e m arket ar e also beginnin g to rec -
ogn ize t h e imp orta n ce of m ore co mpact, a m eni ty-fill ed offi ce
loca ti on s . In Au gus t 2003, Bosto n P ro perties, a large r ea l estate
in ves tm ent trust , sp e nt a r ecord $205 milli on fo r tw o full y lease d
o ffic e buildings in Virgini a's R es t on Town Center, a co mpac t sub-
urban co mmun ity outsid e of Washin g t on, D .C. A se ni o r vice
pres id en t o f th e firm r e m a r ke d in th e Washington Post, "If you
look at Northern Virgini a over all , th er e's a lot of sp ace availa bl e.
But if you look at R es t o n Town Center and within a quarter m.il e
o f it, you have a vacan cy r ate o f less th an 5 per ce nt," co mpare d
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
with 2 3 percent overall in the Reston-Herndon high-tech
enclave. "Even in a soft market, there's a flight to quality. Tenants
want to be as close as possible to amenities, the restaurants and
retail."18 Compact development makes these amenities possible.
9·
Strategically reduce or remove minimum lot size requirements.
When faced with traffic, loss of open space, or rising demands on
public services from new development, many commw1ities seek to
fix the problem by increasing minimum lot sizes. The thinking is
stra ightforward. Larger lots mean more expensive houses and
thus more tax revenues. Spreading out development will spread
out u·affic and reduce congestion. Put the same house on a larger
piece of land and leave more open space. T h ere is an intuitive
appeal to this thinking. However, many communities have had
counterintuitive results, with larger lot sizes sometimes exacerbat-
ing the very problems they were meant to avoid.
Here's why. While government requirements for large lots do
drive up housing costs, the extra tax revenues may be offset by
other factors. For instance, longer distances between houses mean
extra infrastructure and higher capita l costs-not only within the
development (where the developer likely pays), but also between
developments that the local government genera ll y pays for. In
addition, larger lots mean a development consumes more land
than it would otherwise. When this land is farmland or other
"working land," the locality los es a valuable taxpayer. Unlike
houses, working lands almost a lw ays pay more in taxes than they
demand in services. Fina ll y, zoning exclusive ly for large lots and
houses may mean that more incoming households wi ll be fami li es
with school-age children. Schools are often the largest cost for
loca l government. Zoning that provides for families, retirees,
young couples just starting off, and singles can diversify the
household base and thereby reduce sc hool costs.
In response, loca liti es are now looking at the advantages that can
come with su·ategic reductions, or in certain parts of a commu-
nity, with the remova l of minimum lot sizes. Like large lot zoning
under 1 w1it per 20 acres, zoning for sma ll er lots does not directly
preserve open space. However, unlike larger lot zoning, sma ll er
lot sizes can actua ll y reduce market pressure on undeveloped
land, providing communities with time to preserve important
open space. In some cases communities have linked these two
ideas, providing more building opportunities in one area in
exchange for preservation in another tl1rough tradable develop-
ment rights. For instance, in Montgomery County, Maryland,
land in the more rural upcounty area was downzoned from 1 wlit
per 5 acres to 1 wut per 25 acres, and landowners were a ll owed to
sell the difference in development rights to downcounty areas
where greater density was allowe d .
IO.
Manage the transition between higher-and lower-density
neighborhoods.
Providing a variety of housing, n eighborhood, and transportation
choices is one of smart growth's principal goals. To provide
choices, a variety of development-including main streets with
shops and townhouses, business centers with offices and apart-
ments, and single-famil y neighborhoods with yards-is needed.
Arlington County, Virginia, is an examp le of a community that
has been able to successfu ll y integrate higher-and lower-density
development. Arlington's many neighborhood types meet a vari -
ety of living preferences and econo mic means. Residents can
choose to live in any number of amenity-rich neighborhoods tl1at
are a s hort walk or bike from s h o pping, parks, sc h oo ls, and
res taurants and a subway rid e or drive from work a nd regional
destinations.
Ar lin gto n County h as co ncentrated hi g her-densi ty d eve lopm ent
on le ss than 7 pe rcent o f its land a long its two rail transit co rri-
dors. T hi s sm all portion of land area ge n era t es 70 perc ent of th e
co un ty tax base. Integra tin g density in a co nc e ntra ted area a ll ows
the county to offer urban livin g to so m e and protect suburban liv -
ing for others while increasing property values and maintaining
co mmuni ty character throu g hout.
Ar lin gton has u sed a var iety of techniques to manage th e transi-
tions between areas of low e r density and areas o f hi g her density,
includin g :
• Estab li shin g bull's-eye zo nin g arou nd transit stati o ns. This co n-
ce nu·ates the hi gh est density aro und areas with the grea t es t
transportation ch oice s and gradu all y reduces density as you
move away from th e stations. In sin g le -famil y n eighborhoods,
residents know th at high er densities will be loca t e d e ls ewhe re
a nd that there will be developments of middling densities to
transition from one n eighborhood type to another. (For m ore
inform ation o n bull's-eye zo ning, see Principle 10, Policy 8.)
• Stepping down building h eig hts . Transitions between hi gh and
low density are mediated by middling densities. Midran ge den-
sity ca n take different forms, su ch as large buildings surrounded
by parking or sm aller buildings th at make up more co h e r ent
n eig hb orhoods. Arlin gto n specifies that as yo u move from
hi gh -density to low-den sity areas, bu ildin g h e ig h ts shou ld be
reduced. Thus, low-ri se buildings ac hi eve moderate densities,
provide so und barriers be tween busy centers and quiet nei gh-
borhoods, and create a co nsist ent visual progression.
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BU ILDING DESIGN II
• Citizen parti cipation in the pl anning process. Arlington's r esi -
dents are very en gaged in th e planning process and ha ve a good
understanding of th e deve lo pm ent plan and goa ls. Their partic-
ip ation creates suppo rt for high er-d ensi ty d eve lo pment in th e
tran sit corridor, and th ei r input helps to en sure that new devel-
o pment ad ds va lu e to the exis tin g n e ig hborhood .
T hese are just a few of th e techniques a ppli e d in Ar lin gton. Many
other techniques (s uch as stra t egic loca ti on of parks, m at chin g
building types across streets, stepping buildings back when th ey
r eac h th e ir upp e r stories, and mat chin g loca l architectura l styles)
a lso provide e ffective means of acco mmodati ng hi g her density.
Achieving higher-d en sity development in so me parts of a commu-
ni ty is a key to providin g amenities, housi n g choices, eco n o mic
opportuniti es, and transportation optio ns. R es id ents in Ar lin gton
have wi lling ly accepted hi g her density because they have worked
closely with loca l officia ls, because the development rul es are
cl ea r , and, ultimately, because n ew development ha s improved the
n e ighborhood and quality of life.
Dowell Myers and Elizabeth Gearin, "Current Pre ference and Future
Demand for Denser Residentia l E n viro nm ents," Housing Policy Debate , 12
(200 1): 63 7-639.
Be lden Russonello and Stewart, Americans ' Attitudes To ward Walking and
Creating Better Walking Comrmm ities (Washington, D.C.: Belden
Rus sonell o and Stewart, 2003), 4-5.
3 John Holtzclaw, Sierra Club Home Page, June 1994, http://www.sierraclub .
org/sprawl/articles/characteristics.asp (accessed 28 Apri l 2003).
4 http://www.greenbelt.org/whatwedo/prog_cdt_index .html
http://www.greenbelt.org/whatwedo/prog_cdt_projectsummary.html
6 US Environmenta l Protection Age n cy, "Transportation and
E n vironmenta l Analysis of the Atl antic Steel Development Project," in
Our Built and Natural Env ironments (Washington, D.C.: EPA Publication
#231-R-01-002, 2001): 47 .
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
South Carolina Coastal Conservation League, EPA, NOAA, SC
Deparanent of Health and Environment, Town of Mown Pleasant, The
Belle Hall Study: Sprawl vs . Traditional Town: Environmental 111lpliwtions
(South Miami, FL: Dover, Kohl, and Partners, 1995).
The Center for Watershed Protection's Web site (http://www.cwp .org)
provides many resources on developing BMPs, and EPA's stormwater
office has developed a National Menu of Best Management Practices for
Storm Water Phase II, which is online at http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/
stormwater/menuofbmps/menu.cfm .
Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation
(New York: North Point Press, 2000).
1° Congress for New Urbanism. Online Tour,
http://www.cnu.org/aboutlindex.cfm?formaction=tour&CFID=3676916&
CFTOKEN=15865508. For more information on developing communi-
ties with TND principles, visit the Congress for New Urbanism's Web site
at www.cnu.org.
11 Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Grea t American Cities (New York:
Vintage, 1961).
12 Norfolk Police Departn1ent Web site: http://www.norfolk.va.us/police/
block.html (accessed August 25, 2003).
13 For more information about the redevelopment of Mill District in
Minneapolis, see http ://www.c i.minneapoli s.nm.us/council/2003-
meetings/20030516/docs/06-West-Side-Milling-Dist.
14 Dougal M. Casey, 2002 U.S. Retail Sales, Mall Sales, and Department Store
Sales Rev iew (New York : International Council of Shopping Centers, April
2003).
15 James Valente and Leslie Oringer, "Retail's Evolving Footprint," Urban
Land. July 1998. 30-35.
16 Chris Duerksen and Robert Blanchard, "Belling the Box : Planning for
Large Scale Retail Stores." Proceedings of the 1998 National Planning
Conference. http://www.asu.edu/caed/proceedings98/Duerk/duerk.htn1l.
17 Robert Lang, "Office Sprawl: The Evolving G eography of Business"
(Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution. October 2000).
18 Ke1meth Bredemeier, "Record $205 Million Paid for Office Buildings."
Washington Post, August 11, 2003.
Chapter 3
Create a Range of Housing
Opportunities and Choices
A critical part of implementing smart
growth is ensuring that a range of hous-
ing options is availab le for varying income lev-
els and demographic groups. As individuals pass
through various stages of their lives, their hous-
ing needs often change. Communities with
smart growth policies meet these challenges by
ensuring that a broad range of housing types is
available for a variety of income levels . While
many empty-nesters may be ready to scale
down to smaller homes, others may want to
remain in their homes as th ey age. Some indi-
viduals may want to forgo the demands of a
house and its inherent responsibilities for the
ease of apartment or condo living . Some com-
rnuni t y residents ma y l ac k the eco nomic
resources to purchase or maintain a home or
even to find viable rental housing in their com-
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
El GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
PRACTICE TIP:
The Fannie Mae Foundation's
KnowledgePlex Web site is a com-
prehensive, interactive resource for
learning more about affordable
housing and community develop-
ment. It offers updates on housing
legislat ion, innovations from around
the country, and art i cles that
address up-to-date topics and con-
cerns. For more information, see
http://knowledgeplex.org.
munity. One of the primary goals of smart growth is to provide
enough var iety in h ousing types and price ranges to accommodate
a vast array of needs and tastes .
The supply of affordab le housing is a concern in communities
across the country. Throughout the late 19 90s and into the new
millennium, annua l housing prices steadi ly increased 7 or 8 per-
cent, with some markets like the Silicon Va ll ey area of California
showing 5 0-7 5 percent increases over the past five years. 1
Housing price increases are caused by a number of interacting
factors, including the supply and demand for h ousing, the price of
inputs such as labor, materials and land, and the amount of choice
in the housing market. Researchers have concluded that both
conventional land use regulations (e.g., density limits, minimum
square footage requirements, and bans against accessory dwelling
units such as attached housing or granny flats) and growth man-
agement policies can affect the affordabi li ty of h ousing. Yet, as
researchers also note, smart growth policies can help improve the
supp ly and the location of affordable housing as well as improve
the community by providing mixed-use developments that offer
nearby services and transportation choices . Such improvements,
in turn, make the neighborhood more desirable and help main-
tain housing values.2
Cities are recognizing that they need to house residents of all
incomes. A recent po ll conducted by the Chicago Tribune shows
that six of ten Chicago metropolitan residents believe more
affordab le housing is needed in their local community, and two -
thirds support building it in their own areas.3 Public-and private-
sector policies and actions can enhance the availability of housing
choice within a neighborhood and region.
A range of housing styles and types
on a Seattle, Washington, block.
I.
Establish an employer-assisted housing program.
An adequate supp ly of affordab le housing can be a major asset for
regional economic development and a key to attracti n g talented
employees . Where localities do not have housing choices for indi -
vidua ls who work in entry-level jobs, emp loyees must either
choose between a long commute or moving to another commu -
nity with more affordab le h ousing. Many employers are recogniz-
ing they can help improve this situation for their employees.
In 2000, the Greater Minnesota Housing Fw1d (GMHF), created
by the Twin Cities' Metropolitan Counci l, developed and imple-
mented several innovative models to better match h ousing supply
with housing demand. The fund works with employers to match
down-payment assistance, leverage housing-development financ-
ing, and provide technical ass istance for commw1ities interested
in expanding their affordable housing.4 These programs serve a
wide range of housing needs, from assisting a potential home-
owner with closing costs to directing investment funds into com-
munities that are designated for redevelopment.
Successful employer-assisted housing strategies serve two essen-
tial purposes: they increase the avai lab le housing stock in a com-
munity and help employees to buy existing housing. Because of
these strategies, a family can build equity and enjoy the security
that a home brings. In addition, the emp loyer benefits from
increased employee loyalty, savings derived from the decreased
need t o train new emp loyees, savings because wages do not n eed
to be increased to retain and attract emp loyees, reduced worker
commuting times, and overa ll civic pride.
2.
Streamline the development review process when units include
affordable housing.
Affo rd a bl e h o using producti o n is ofte n hampe r e d by co st and
tim e d e lay s du e to r egulati o ns a nd a dmini s trative over s ig ht.
Th ese re gul ation s de t e rmin e th e u se o f fundin g m ec h ani sms and
th e des ign and co nstructi o n o f ho usin g units. The land ac qui si-
ti on process ca n als o delay hou sin g proj ects. M akin g th e d eve lo p-
m e nt review process as fa st and simpl e as poss ibl e is on e way t o
en courage co nstru cti o n o f mo re a ffo rda bl e h ou sin g .
M uni cip aliti es ca n ease th e pro cess by grantin g compre h en sive
zo nin g a pproval if a ce rtain p er ce nta ge o f h o u s in g units in a
develo pment is affo rd ab le to lower-in co m e h ou se h o ld s. E nsurin g
a hi gh -qu a li ty p ro du ct a nd en gagin g stake h o ld er s t o d e te rmin e
th e rul es for grantin g strea mlin ed permits ar e key to th e success
o f this strat egy.
In s umme r 2 00 3, th e Ma r y la nd-Na ti o n a l Ca pita l P a rk a nd
Pl annin g Commi ss io n (M-NCPPC) ann oun ce d th e initi ati o n o f
an ex p edited d eve lo pm ent a pprova l process fo r a fford a bl e h o us-
in g projects in Montgomery Coun ty, Maryland , call e d th e "green
ta pe process fo r affordabl e hou sin g."5 The Montgo m ery County
Pl a nnin g Boa rd ha s o ft en ex presse d co nc e rn a bo ut th e c riti ca l
nee d for m o re ho usin g uni ts th at ar e a ffo rd a bl e to citi ze ns wh ose
in co mes preve nt the m fro m purchas in g market-ra t e ho usin g .
U nder th e "Gree n Tap e " program, the M-N CPPC will coordinate
a nd s trea mlin e plan r evi ews t o e n sure a n ex p e dite d a pprova l
pro cess fo r a fford abl e ho usin g pro jec ts . E li g ibl e p rojects includ e
r esid e nti al o r mix ed -us e d evel o pm ent th at d esi gn at es at leas t 20
perc ent of the tota l number of housin g units to pe rso ns or famili es
with incomes at or bel ow th e in co me level fo r moder ately pri ce d
CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES II
d we llin g units as d e fin e d in th e
M ontgo m e ry C o un ty C o d e . Ch an ges t o
be includ ed in th e G ree n Ta pe process a re:
• Modifie d app lication form s for subdi vi-
sion s, proj e ct p lan s, and site plan s to
id entify affo rd a b le hou sin g proj ec ts
• An ex p edited revi ew process for
applicati o n s
• Improve d communi ca ti o ns between th e
. . . r ev1ewrn g age n cies
• C r ea ti o n o f a geographi c informati on
syste m m a p overl ay o f G reen T ap e
a p p li ca ti o ns fo r easy id e ntifi ca ti o n o f
these proj ects
• E xp edited constructi on permits and utiliti es p ermits pro cess in g.6
3·
Create a regional program to encourage all communities to
include a fair share of affordable and moderate-range housing.
In man y r egions, th e h ou sin g sto ck do es n o t includ e a balan ce o f
h o usin g types a nd pri ces ac ross all communiti es. T h e e ffo rts o f
o n e city to p ro vid e ho u sin g fo r low er-inco m e r es id ents m ay n o t
address over all d em an d if n e ighboring communiti es do not make
simil ar e fforts. Th e n ee d for a wid e distr ibuti o n o f a ffordabl e
h o u sing within a r egi o n a lso r e lates t o r e du c in g co mmutin g
tim es and co nges ti o n , ba lancin g jo bs a nd h ou sin g, a nd miti ga tin g
con ce nu·ati o n s o f pover ty. Pl ann er s around th e country are try-
ing sever al a pproaches t o en sure that all communiti es throug h-
o ut a m et ro p o litan a rea ac hi eve a n ad e qu a t e r ange of h o u sin g
types and includ e a fair share o f affo rdabl e and mo der at e-ra n ge
Detached single-family homes in
Grayslake, Illinois, feature garage
alleys and face a large neighbor-
hood park.
Ell GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
PRACTICE TIP :
The American Plann i ng Associa-
tion's new report Regional
Approaches to Affordable Housing
examines the results achieved to
date in the regions or areas of the
country where equity in housing
opportunity is a planning priority.
For more information, visit
www.planning .org.
housing. The following illustrates two examples of unique fair-
share partnerships.
All cities and counties in California are required by state law to
have a general plan that includes a "housing element." Plans must
be certified by the state, which can require changes if they don't
comply with state mandates. Once adopted , the general plan has
the force of law : a local government cannot legally act inconsis-
tently with its general plan . While the law does not require cities
and counties to build affordable housing themselves, their hous-
ing elements must:
• Establish housing programs and policies that encourage
affordable housing for people of all incomes and those with
special needs
• Demonstrate that they have enough land zoned for
multifamily housing to build all of the homes needed for
lower-income families
• Reduce obstacles to housing development
• Describe how they will use available funding for
affordable housing.7
Portland, Oregon, has adopted a Regional Affordable Housing
Strategy (RAHS) that calls for local governments within the
region to adopt "voluntary affordable housing production goals."
The strategy also requires communities to submit a progress
report that indicates the status of comprehensive plan amend-
ments, land use tools, and supply of affordable housing. The spe-
cific actions recommended in the RAHS focus on cost reduction,
land use and regulatory issues, and the distribution of regional
funds; all actions are voluntary. Because the Portland Metro
Council accepted the RAHS in June of 2000, information regard-
ing the effectiveness and outcomes of the approach were not
available at the time of printing.8
4·
Use transportation funds as an incentive to provide housing
near transit.
Many growing urban areas are experiencing both an acute short-
age of housing and severe traffic-congestion issues. Local govern-
ments seeking sales tax revenues tend to zone and create incentives
for office space and retail development. Conversely, they may
engage in efforts intended to keep out low -cost housing to avoid
the associated fiscal burdens. This can create an imbalance
between the number of jobs in a jurisdiction and the number of
residential units, which, in turn, can worsen traffic congestion dur-
ing peak hours and lead to lifeles $ commercial areas after hours.
Officials in San Mateo County, California, knew their housing
shortage was creating a jobs-housing imbalance and contributing
to higher housing costs. The resulting long commutes increased
traffic congestion and worsened air quality. To address this prob-
lem, the City/County Association of Governments of San Mateo
County (C/CAG) sponsored a countywide transit-oriented devel-
opment (TOD) incentive program. C/CAG can allocate up to 10
percent of its state transportation improvement program funds as
an incentive for local land use authorities to develop housing near
transit stations.
Under the program, a jurisdiction receives funds based on the
number of bedrooms built near rail transit. Typically, eligible
projects receive up to $2,000 per bedroom. To be eligible for the
program, housing must be within one-third of a mile of a rail
transit station, and density must be at least 40 units per acre.
Funds can be used to support transportation improvements either
on o r o ff site, as de t ermined by th e land use age n cy. In addition t o
direc t trans po rtati on improve m e nts, the prog r am permits some
ge neral improve m ents, su ch as land sca pin g , li g htin g, sid ewa lks,
pl azas, and r ec r eati on al projects .
F o r th e fir st cycl e, O ctobe r 1999 t o Se pte mbe r 2001 , C/C AG
prog rammed $2 .3 mi lli on to its T OD in ce nti ve progr am to sup-
port d eve lo pment o f 1,282 bedroo ms in fi ve proj ect s . T h e second
cycl e , Fe bruary 2002 t o F e bru ar y 2004, h as p rogr a mme d ove r
$2 .9 milli on for 10 proj ects t o facilitate the cre ation of 2 ,40 7 bed-
roo ms. Sa n Ma t eo 's su ccess h as inspire d o ther co mmuniti es to
impl e m ent s imil ar p rogra m s with th e ir tran s p o rta ti o n fund s.
Through th ese local inc entive -ba se d progra ms, r egio nal gove rn-
m ents ar e address ing housin g sh ortages while decre asing traffi c
co nges ti o n an d m axi mj zing rid e rship o n th eir tran sit sys t em s.
5·
Use housing to engender 24-hour cities in revitalization plans.
D o wntown r evita lizati on proj ec t s o ft e n fo cus o n c r ea tin g n e w
region al attrac ti o ns, such as a stadium , an aqu arium , a co n ve nti o n
ce nter , o r a shopping pla za . Th er e is ofte n a beli e f th a t these
kinds of proj ects will bring more mon ey into th e city by attractin g
lar ge crowds and s pin-o ff bu sin esses like h ot e ls and r estaurants.
An o th er co mmon prac ti ce aim ed at m aximi zing th e gove rnment's
r e turn on ta x do llars is to ove rbuild o ffi ce space beca u se wo rke rs
require few e r service s than residences . R ev ita lization e fforts
fo cu se d onl y o n th ese kind s o f d eve lo pm ents, h ow eve r, cr ea t e
downto wn s wh er e th e ac tivi ty occurs only du r ing the bu sin ess day
o r durin g sp ec ia l eve nts o n th e weekend s .
In contrast , r evitalization projects that incorporate h o u sing as a
critical co mp on ent r e-en er gize entire n eig hb orh oods. With r es i-
dents living in a place around th e cl oc k, a new marke t is crea t ed
CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES II
fo r ni ghtlife, services, and sh o pping . H ou sing cr eates th e en ergy
fo r a 24-h o ur c ity. R ound-the -cl ock cities are co n sist ently re co m-
m end e d as sound pl aces fo r r ea l es t at e in ves tm e nt. T h ey a r e
d es ira bl e loca ti o ns fo r develo per s and r ea l es t ate inves t or s du e t o
th eir high e r barri ers t o e ntry, geogra phi c am e niti es, tran s porta-
ti on and t ec hno logy infras tructure, and cultura l, e nte rta inm e nt,
a nd r e ta il o pp o rtw1i ties. W ithin subur ba n loca ti on s, d en se centers
are beginnin g t o evo lve into 24-hour ma rkets wh er e res id ents ca n
work, sh o p , dine , and entertain in a given n eighborhood . In th e ir
a nnu a l publi ca ti o n E m erging Trends i n R ea l Es t ate,
Pri ce wat e rh ou seCoo pe rs and L e nd Lease have fa vo rabl y ra t ed 24 -
ho ur m arke t s fo r the pas t deca de. As citi es rea li ze the po t enti a l o f
th e ir downtown ar e as, many are tryin g to e n co ura ge m or e h o u s-
ing th er e while m aintainin g affo rd abl e ho u sin g sto ck.
Washin gt o n , D.C., fo r exa mpl e, is re inve nting itse lf as a 24 -hour
des tinati on . Like many urban ce nter s, D .C. had bee n los in g po p -
ul ati on for deca des. By the nud-l 99 0s its downto wn was h oll owe d
out, and after 5:00 p.m . it was lar ge ly abandoned . Then , chan ges
in gove rnm ent, a thri vin g eco n o my, region a l traffi c con ges ti o n ,
and de mogra phi c chan ges co mbined t o make the ci ty a des ira bl e
p lace t o li ve. The Di strict m ad e the m os t o f its p o pul a ri ty by
encoura ging re sidential h ou sing de ve lo pm ent in downtown co m -
mer cial areas. Betw ee n 2000 and 2002 , the Offi ce o f Planning and
Econ o mi c D eve l o pm e nt r e p o rte d t h a t 3, 144 r es id e nti a l units
we re co mpl et e d , whil e 5, 72 5 we r e und er con structi on and 10 , 194
were in pre d eve lo pm ent st ages. M a ny o f th ese unjts we nt into
tra diti o n al co mmer cial and o ffi ce loca ti on s. R es id ential dev el o p-
m ent in these ar eas has increase d its sa fety a ft er wo rk h ours and
mad e it m or e profitable for busin esses t o st ay o pen lat er.
T o incr ease city r evenues and e nlive n the d o wntown, D.C .'s
m ayo r has ado pte d a goa l of in cr eas in g the res id enti a l po pul ati on
m GETTING TO SMAR T GROWTH II
by 100,000 persons by 2010. To m eet that goa l, the District is
embarking o n a new marketing campaign-"city li ving, de style!"
Targeting commuters, current renters, young professionals, and
empty nesters, the city li ving campaign wi ll highlight the oppor-
tunities that accompany downtown living: housing for a ll
incomes, recreation for all ages, and entertainment for every taste.
6.
Integrate smart growth and housing programs.
The most successful way of ensuring that a community supports a
diversity of housing types and price ranges is to create a compre-
hensive housing program reflective of smart growth principles.
A typical place to start is to identify housing-opportunity zones
within the general or comprehensive plan that are also consistent
with smart growth goals. For instance, a diverse range of housing
should be located near transit and/or job centers. This in turn
creates not on ly more housing opportunities, but also transporta-
tion choice and more balanced regiona l growth. Yet, by itself, a
plan is not enough to guarantee the inclusion of affordable hous-
ing. Using incentives in zoning processes and fee structures, cities
and counties can more easi ly encourage developers to build
affordable units in designated smart growth areas.
Lack of affordab le housing in Ca li fornia's Si li con Va ll ey has
forced low-in come fami li es to live far outside the center of the
region or in overcrowded conditions. In 2000, the average price
of a single-fami ly h ome in Si li con Va ll ey was $617,000, and in
Apri l 2001, the median monthly rent for a two-bedroom apart-
ment in Santa Clara County was $1,800.9
In response to these concerns, San Jose's city-planning staff con-
ducted a "Housing Initiative Study" to examine market demand
and land supply for new housing in the G uadalupe li ght-rail tran-
sit corridor. Finding that the area cou ld accommodate up to
10,000 new, compact units, the city updated its gen era l plan to
allow substa nti a ll y more h ousing along the tra nsit line.
As a result of this policy direction, 25 projects comprising 4,145
housing units have been built in existing transit corridors (both
bus and rail) with city assistance. To finance the affordable com-
ponents of these projects, San Jose typically uses 20 percent of tax
increment financing receipts to fill the gap between conventiona l
financing and ava il ab le supplements, such as low-in come housing
tax credits and tax-exempt private activity bonds. 10
Austin, Texas, developed a housing policy initiative ca ll ed
SMART (safe, mixed income, accessib le, reasonably-priced,11 and
transit-ori e nted), which requires that a certain number of units be
affordab le for fami li es who earn no more than 80 percent of
median family income. These units must be one-quarter mile or
less from existing or planned transit and meet additional criteria .
The program has a number of in centives to encourage developers
to build housing that meets the SMART specifications, including
a review process that is faster than traditional review times. Each
project is assigned a city staff person to help move the project
through review and inspection.
SMART also waives fees associated with development, including
review and inspection , water and wastewater cap ita l r eco very, and
public-works construction inspection. The reduced fees operate
on a sliding scale, as shown on page 27 .
Austin has certified over 6,000 new single-fami ly or multifamily
housing units that meet SMART program spec ifi cations.12
As both the programs in San J ose and Austin demonstrate, a com-
prehensive approach is required to ensure that adequate suppl ies
Reduced Fee Sliding Scale
A builder provides
1 O percent reasonably priced
housing units
20 percent fee waivers
30 percent reasonably priced
housing units
40 percent fee waivers
City of Austin provides
25 percent reasonably priced
housing units
50 percent fee waivers
7 5 percent reasonably priced
housing units
100 percent fee waivers
of reasonably priced housing are avai lab le. Municipalities can
develop plans that target housing in specific smart growth areas
and then create flexibility and time savings in the zoning and
review processes. Financial incentives can also be introduced to
encourage developers to produce affordable w1its.
7·
Adopt property tax exemption programs for mixed-income
developments and low-income homeowners.
Communities often struggle with finding ways to produce afford-
ab le housing. Some developers claim that land is too expensive or
that they ca nnot ac hiev e a return on their investment if projects
include affordable units. Other barriers include design guidelines
and site -pl an review costs. While many factors contribute to the
expense of supplying affordab le housing, communities can use
tools that subsidize the cost to developers through tax exemp-
tions. While providing suc h financial in centives for developers is
important, communities should be sure to craft their programs
around specific resident needs to achieve th e best results.
CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES ANO CHOICES II
For example, Olympia, Washington, administers the Property
Tax Exemption Program for multifamily housing. The city offers
a 10-year property tax exemption as an incentive to developers
who incorporate multifamily housing within building projects
located in downtown Olympia and other eligib le areas. To be eli-
gib le, projects must create at least four new or renovated multi-
family units. Another stipulation is that the project cannot dis-
place any existing residents.13 T his program provides an incentive
to build multiple-family developments in areas that previously
h ad been devoid of housing for low-i n come residents and individ-
uals li ving on fixed incomes.
When creating property tax exempt programs of their own, com -
munities should locate affordab le housing in areas with significant
lifesty le amenities. A downtown setting typica ll y provides access
to employment and shoppin g options whi le reducing the number
of vehicle trips. Program terms, such as the length of the tax
exemption and the amount of units per project, can vary.
8 .
Develop smart growth funds to promote development in
underserved communities.
In many parts of the country, growth and development in low-
in come neighborhoods is encouraged through grant programs,
in centives, and tax abatement packages. Without these incentives,
private investment would not likely occur in many places. The
use of incenti ve programs, especiall y with federal dollars, is not
n ew . However, setti n g aside funding for projects with a smart
growth tilt is an in creasi n gly popular trend.
Establishing a sm art growth fund is one of the most effective
means of ensuring that smart growth proj ects are developed and
funded in low-income communities. E ith er a public trust or a
PRACTICE TIP
Policylink, a nonprofit research
and communications organization,
offers the Equitable Developm ent
Toolkit, an Internet-based commu-
nity resource, to help community
leaders achieve equitable develop-
ment: diverse, mixed-income neigh-
borhoods that are strong, stab le ,
and welcoming to all. For more
information, see http://www.policy
I ink.org/Eq u itable Development.
m GETTING TO SMAR T GROWTH 11
PRACTICE TIP :
The Affordable Housing Design
Advisor is a tool produced by the
U.S. Department of Hous i ng and
Urban Development. It helps the
developers, sponsors, and users of
affordable housing understand
what constitutes quality design,
why it is worth striving for, and how
to achieve it in their own projects.
For more information, see
http://www.designadvisor.org/.
consortium of private businesses can generate and manage this
fund. Each city then adopts a priority funding area, which indi-
cates the location where monies will be dispers ed (for more infor-
mation on priority funding areas, see Principle 7, Policy 2).
Besides specifying the location for fund usage, the program
ensures that home development will be concentrated near existing
nodes of infrastructure and mass transit.
The major benefit of this program is that it provides investment
for affordable housing in communities that typically see little or
no such investment. In several cases, tl1e use of the smart growth
fund mandates tl1at developments cannot displace neighborhood
residents . This requires that the fund manager work closely with
community residents and leaders to establish housing projects
that meet their needs.
Because the fund provides the initial investment, each project
supplies a return back to the fund and its investors . The Bay Area
Smart Growth Fund, established in 2001, is a leading example of
targeting resources for the production of affordab le housing. This
fund also finances market-rate housing and commercia l proper-
ties. Comparties throughout the Bay Area, including Wells Fargo
and Bank of America, have contributed. The fund was created by
the Bay Area Council to leverage financial resources to in vest in
smart growth projects that take advantage of existing infrastruc-
ture and amenities, such as transit. A council of community-based
organizations and government representatives oversees the fund
to ensure that the investments made by the fund return tangible
benefits to the neighborhoods where the projects are developed.
As money is invested into projects, contributin g compa ni es
receive profits from successfu l projects. The Bay Area Council
hopes that the good faith and marketability of these ho using proj -
ects will encourage investors to reinvest their profits in tl1e fund,
thus creating a steady stream of financing for future endeavors.
9 ·
Use different builders on contiguous blocks of land to ensure
a diversity of housing styles.
That h omes appear to be indistinguishable from one another is a
common criticism of newer residential developments. When driv-
ing tllfough such developments, the only variation one might dis-
cern among each house is tl1e placement of a door, or the co lor of
the shutters, or the tone of the brick. This kind of homogeneity
occurs because builders are able to achieve economies of sca le by
mass producing simi lar housing types and designs. In addition ,
h ousing in many subdivisions is constructed with factory-built
components that may not all ow for significant variation in design
details that can make a place unique.
An innovative way to avoid the creation of cookie -cutter subdivi-
sions is to ha ve different builders con struct homes on the same
block or, alternatively, to have different builders construct homes
on different blocks. T he master developer for the massive
Stapleton project outside of Denver, Colorado, h as hired 10 dif-
ferent h omebu ild e r s. Each builder is so ld finished lots o ne block
at a time-a size large en ough to ensure efficient h ome produc-
tion. The same h omebuild er is n ot sold contiguo us blocks, and
because different companies construct different models with vary-
in g materials, styles, and co lors, the result is a varied streetscape.
Such an a pproac h must be balanced with other considerations.
C learly, there can be increased logistics involved w hen dealing
with m ore than o ne h omebui ld er. In add iti o n , as the Stapleton
example suggests, production of multiple units in the sa m e loca-
tion can create economies of scale, reducing production costs and
thus the homebuyer's cost. Also, developers will likel y want to
provide some guidance o n the style and feel of th e neighborhood
they are creating; otherwise a number of different builders work-
Senior housing in Durham, North
Carolina, converted from a mill.
ing on the same site m ay create an eclectic hodge-podge of house
designs. With these factors in mind, developers can successfu ll y
employ a number of builders wi thin their development to create a
full range of distinctive housing types.
I O .
Create a housing trust fund.
Housing trust funds are distinct funds estab li sh ed by legis lati on,
o rdin a n ce, or resolution to receive public revenues, whi c h ca n
only be spent on h ous in g. T h e key c h aracteristic of a housing
trust fund is that it receives o n go in g revenues from dedicated
sources of public funding, such as taxes, fees, or loan repayments.
Typ ica ll y, legislation or an ordin ance is passed that increases an
existi ng revenue source, such as a real estate transfer tax, with the
increase being committed to the hou sing trust fund. Housing
trust funds provide a more secure way to fund n eeded housing. In
addition, th ese funds enable middle-age residents to remain in
CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHO I CES II
their neighborhoods and young adu lts to purchase homes in com-
munities w h ere their parents reside by financing a variety of
h ousin g types and option s.
Today there are 280 housi ng trust funds throughout the country,
with an effort under way to establi sh a national h ousing trust
fund. Many trust funds include provisions requiring housin g to
remain affordable over an extended timeframe and require lever-
aging loca l resources to maximize the potential benefit.
On a statewide leve l, the Michigan Housing Trust Fund provided
146 loans to 68 organizations in 38 Michi gan c iti es in 2002. These
loans totaled over $11 million and have leveraged more than $43
million in other funding, thereby ass isting in the production of
over 1,200 affordable housing units.15 Nebraska's Affordable
Housing Trust Fund distributes resources on a regional basis, with
outlays of $24 million over the last six years. While many trust
funds are establi s h ed by states or large cities, counties such as
Santa Clara, Cali fornia, administer a housing trust fund to provide
low-in terest down payment/closing cost loans for first-time home-
buyers, gap financing for affordab le rental housing projects, and
funds to assist the homeless in attaining stab le h ousing.
The Center for Commun ity C h a n ge h as published A Guide to
Developing a Housing Trust Fund. This r esource provides tips on
how to manage the trust fund and use tl1e resources to promote
affordab le housing.16
David Leonhardt, "Homes Prices Still Rising, But More Slowly." New York
Times, June 3, 2003.
C. Arthur Nelson et al., "The Link Between Growth Management and
Housing Affordability: The Academic Evidence ." Prepared for the
Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy
(Washington, D .C.: February 2002).
FINANCE TIP:
The Chicago Housing Authority
(CH A) has undertaken a unique
application of a Department of
Housing and Urban Development
(HU Dl capital fund program to
complete a $291 million bond sa le
to fin ance its sen ior and scatt ered
site property-rehabilitation pro-
gram. Thi s is the first tax-exempt
bond transaction to be secured
solely by capital fund program
grants . The CH A also recently
approved the issuance of an addi-
tional $20 million in bonds for the
redeve lopment of its Henry Horner
Homes, an old public housing devel-
opment on Chicago's west side .
"CHA is very pleased w ith the con -
tinued high rating," said CHA CEO
Terry Peterson. "This shows that
we are in a strong position to honor
our financial commitments and to
keep the promise we made to our
residents-to create better living
conditions in viable, healthy com-
munities." As the first public hous-
ing agency to utilize the HUD capi-
tal fund program in this way, CHA
was honored with the inaugural
"Deal of the Year" award from
Bond Buyer last year. HUD is now
in negotiations with the
Philadelphia Hou sing Authority to
leverage fund s in the same manner.14
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
"Chi cago Metro po litan Area Res id en ts Sup por t More Affo rd able
H o usin g," Chicago Tribune, April l l , 2003.
For detai ls, see Greater Minn esota Housing F und, http://www.gm h f.co m/.
T his program is a va ri ation o f Mon tgo mery Cow1ty's "Green Tape" review
tea m descri bed in Vo lum e I of Getting to S111art Growth.
In fo rm atio n o n th e "Gree n Ta pe" program can be fou nd at
h ttp://www.mc-nrn cppc.org/deve lopmen t/fo rms/gree n _tape.sh an.
T hjs s umm ary of Ca li fo rru a's req ui reme n ts is adapted fr om Sham1o n
D odge, "Orga ru zin g with the State o n Yo ur Side," Sbelterforce On line, no.
J 2 1 (Jan/Fe b 200 2), http ://www.nhi.org/onlin e/issues .h anl.
For more in for m ati on o n th e RAHS, see http://www.metro-region.org/
article.cfm? ArticleID =4 J 7
Fannie Mae Foun datio n , Maxwell Awards of Excellence Program 200 1-2002.
Affordable H ousing Awards Finalist: Eden H ousing, Inc., 26-29,
h ttp://www.fa1rni emaefo w1 dation .org/ gra n ts/ah d_eden . pel f.
1° For more in fo rm ation , cons ul t http ://www.c i.san-jose.ca.us/plannjng/
sjpl an/.
I I Reaso nab ly priced m ea ns th at a pe rce n tage of the units in th e deve lo p-
me n t must be ava il abl e to famj li es who ea rn no more tha n 80 percent of
median fa 1ru ly inco me fo r th e city of Austin an d wh o wo uld spend no
mo re th an 30 percen t of their fam il y in co me o n housin g.
Il Al l figu r es are fro m h ttp ://www.ci.austin.tx .us/a h fc/s mart.h trn.
13 Fo r detajl s, see C ity o f O lym pi a, Was hi ngto n ,
h ttp://www.ci.o lympia.wa.us.
I4 C hi cago H ous in g Auth o ri ty, O ffice of Comm unicatio ns, perso nal
commwlica ti o n , April 24, 200 3.
IS Miclli gan H ou sin g T ru st Fund W eb site, http ://www.mhtf.o rg.
16 See h ttp://www.communi tyc hange.o rg fo r mo re in fo rmation .
Chapter 4
Create Walkable Communities
A s mentioned in Chapter 2, r e ce nt surveys
o f potenti a l h o m e bu ye r s co n s i s t e ntl y
revea l a signifi ca nt d es ire for walka bl e co mmu-
niti es . M a n y in th e tra nsp o rta t i o n, d eve lo p-
m ent, and planning field s have interpret e d this
as a d es ir e fo r r ecrea ti o n a l wa lkin g tr a il s,
whi ch , in dee d , a r e po pul ar a m e niti es and se ll-
in g po ints fo r so me d eve lo pm ents . H o weve r, as
a strategy for sm art grow th , simply es t a bli shing
wa lkin g trail s fa ll s far sh o rt o f cr ea tin g wa lkabl e
co mmuniti es. T h e t est fo r wh a t con stitutes a
wa lkin g co mmunity i s b ase d o n o n e s impl e
qu es ti o n: i s wa lking a n a ttra c t ive o pti o n for
acco mpli shin g dail y tas ks ?
T hi s simple qu es ti on ca n lead co mmuniti es in
enti re ly new direc ti o n s, and achi evin g wa lka bil-
ity ca n go a lon g way t oward c r ea tin g conve n -
ient, a ttracti ve, li va bl e co mmuniti es . To m a ke
$MART GROWTH
N ETWORK
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH ii
walking an attractive option, a number of factors must be
achieved: Destinations such as schoo ls, corner stores, dry clean-
ers, and restaurants must be close by; neighborhoods must
include areas of more compact development to support such des-
tinations; the walk must be safe from crime and traffic, which
means designing defensible space and promoting "eyes on the
street" (see Principle 2, Policy 5); road designs must accommo-
date pedestrian traffic and provide many direct routes to destina-
tions (i.e ., good street or trail connectivity); and, lastly, walkable
communities must be pleasant to walk in: street trees must pro-
vide shade and buffer auto traffic, and wa lk ers shou ld have inter-
esting frontages to look at (not blank walls or large expanses of
surface parking). In short, if a community is successfu l in making
walking an attractive option for regular activities, it's a good bet
that other parts of smart growth are in place, too.
There are numerous examples of jurisdictions around the world
that have successfully created walkable communities. Because
alm ost every trip requires some walking, we can all identify things
that make wa lkin g pleasant or unpleasant in our individual envi-
ronments. This chapter lists some specific recommendations for
making neighborhoods more walkable.
I.
Develop a pedestrian master plan.
When provided with access to sidewalks, trails, or other walkable
features, residents are 28-55 percent more likely to choose walk-
ing over other modes of transportation.1 However, communities
are often designed without these basic e lements and witl1 little
focus on how the neighborhood can accommodate pedestrian
traffic. For most neighborhoods, public improvements that make
walking a more attractive option are possible, but there is often
no eva lu ation of these needs during the planning process. As a
result, oth er infrastructure improvements often do not address
wa lkabi li ty and, tl1erefore, may perpetuate existing problems. A
pedestrian master plan ca n h e lp focus time and attention on
improvements to pedestrian traffic.
The pedestrian master plan shou ld provide an approach to wa lka-
bility that is consistent, yet allows flexibility, by adopting policies,
prioritizing current and future funding mechanisms, and furnish-
ing design and implementation guidelines for projects. The plan
may include model codes and ordinances, technical guidelines,
estimated project costs, public transit and automobi le traffic coor-
dination, and land acquisition and growth issues. Special attention
should be given to highway and street design (including retro-
fitting existing infrastructure), the distribution of parks and recre-
ationa l facilities, and schoo l location (see Principle 2, Policy 6).
During the planning process, the entire community should be
involved, with a special emphasis on getting the participation of
senior citizens, chi ldren, people with disabilities, and people who
do not use cars. The pedestrian master plan shou ld encourage
community feedback and review and inform adjacent local gov-
ernments, developments, and neighborhoods of planned linkages
between pedestrian destinations. The State of Oregon
Transportation Planning Rule requires cities to adopt a pedes-
trian master plan to be included in the regional transportation
framework.2 The Portland Pedestrian Master Plan lays out action
items, improvement projects, and funding options to pedestrian
transportation over a 20 -year timeframe.
2.
Design communities so that kids can walk to school.
Acco rdin g to a C enter s for Di se ase C o ntro l H e althS ty les s urv ey,
less than 20 perce nt of kid s curre ntl y wa lk to schoo l.3 Stud ents
livin g far away fr o m schoo l mu st be bu se d or dri ve n t o and fr o m
sc h oo l a nd e xtra curricular ac ti viti es. Eve n s tud e nts w h o li ve
within a sho rt di st ance may o pt no t to walk if the route to sc hool
is indirect, lacks sid ewalks and o th er safe ty features, or beca u se
parents p erceive the route to school is w1safe (wheth er becaus e of
th e dan ge r fr o m tra ffi c o r b eca u se o f fe ars about o the r sa fety
iss ues, su ch as crime). When wa lkin g is no t an o pti o n and a par -
ent o r o tl1 er adult is not availabl e t o dri ve, stud ents wh o r e ly on
bu ses m ay ha ve to sacrifice impo rta nt aft er-school activiti es .
Communiti es ca n ma ke it eas ier t o wa lk t o and fr o m sc h ool by
buildin g o r r e ha bi litatin g small e r sch ools o n e mil e o r less fr o m
surrounding n eighbo rh ood s. Large r, ce ntrali ze d suburban sc hools
m ay o ffe r larger faciliti es and more program s, but n eighbo rh ood
sc hoo ls o ffe r mor e e ffici ent land u se and closer wa lkin g proximi ty
for stud e nts, which ultim at e ly translat es to improve d inter ac ti o n
a mo ng stud ents, sc h o ol s, pare nts, and o the r citi ze n s. T he s ur-
rounding community ca n ben e fit fr o m joint use of theater s, spo rts
fi e ld s, gym s, co mputer ce nte rs, librari es, and o th e r r esources dur-
in g no n-sc hool h ours. Sm all er sc hools also can be loca t ed cl ose t o
fa c iliti es th a t p rovid e da yca r e, sp o rts, mu sic , and o th e r a ft e r -
school activiti es to supplem ent schools' form a l programs and pro-
vid e addition a l conv e ni e nc e for p a r e nts and c a r egiv e r s.4
M o r eove r, as resid e nts see th e ir n e ighb o r s' childre n wa lkin g t o
sc hool, th ey provid e eyes o n th e stree t t o enhance th e sa fety o f
th ose children .
An o th e r way t o provi de wa lkin g o pp o rtuniti es for stud ents is t o
es t a bli sh form a l progr a ms t o improve sa fety for c hildre n wh o
cho o se t o w alk. T hroug hout th e U.S., tran s po rta tion, sa fety, and
sc h ool o ffi cia ls a nd pa re nts ar e coordin atin g sa fe r r o utes to sc h ool
by co nduc tin g wa lk a bili ty c h ecks , r e t ro fittin g ex istin g s tree t s,
a ddin g vo luntee r cross in g guards, di stributin g sa fety manual s,
and/or organi zin g wa lkin g sch ool bu ses.5 Ex ampl es o f th ese pro-
g r am s includ e C hi cago's wa lkin g sch oo l bu s, in whi c h seve r a l
par en ts esco rt a group o f loc al stud en ts to sc hool eac h m o rnin g,6
a nd Cali fo rnia 's W alk-t o-Sch ool Progr a m H ea dqu arte r s, whi c h
promote s walkin g t o s chool by postin g informati o n in 13
diffe r e nt lan guages and highlighting m e tho d s fo r improving
walkin g sa fety.7
3·
Use trees and other green infrastructure to provide shelter,
beauty, urban heat reduction, and separation from
automobile traffic.
All t oo o ft e n , th e p e d es trian environme nt can be inhos pitabl e.
Th e re m ay be n o sh ad e from th e sun or vi sual r e li e f fr o m th e
sam en ess of th e buildin gs. When sid ewa lks are cl ose to th e stree t
edge, ped es tri an s m ay fee l ex p osed to o nco min g traffi c . Pl antin g
stree t trees and o th er gree n infrastructure ca n a ll eviat e many o f
th es e iss u es and m ake for a pl eas ant, co mforta bl e, and sa fe walk-
in g ex pe ri en ce.
A good tree ca n o py cr ea t es a co m fo rta bl e e nviro nm e nt fo r pedes-
trians. In so m e c iti es , hi g hly p ave d a r eas ca n b e s ix t o e ig ht
degre es hotter th an ar eas with greater veget ation . Vege tation also
a bso rbs carbon dioxid e and filt er s air and po llutants, tlrn s in cre as -
in g air qu a li ty, lesse nin g as thma-re la t e d h e alth p ro bl e m s, and
r educing wat e r trea tm e nt cos ts.9
Trees and o th er vege t ati on can also ac t as a buffe r be tween pedes -
tri a n s a nd auto m o bil es. To s imulta n eou s ly c r ea t e th e s h a d e
CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES m
PRACTICE TIP:
The Centers for Di sea se Control 's
<CDC l Kid s Wal k-to -School
Program provide s funding and
ass istance to stat es for program s
such as Inte rnational W a lk to
School Da y8 and the Walking
School Bus. The CDC online Guide
to Promote Walking to School at
http ://www.c dc .gov/need ph p/d n pa/
k idswa lk/pdf/kidswalk .pdf provide s
a step-by-s tep checklist, safety tips,
and funding r ec ommendations to
ass ist communitie s i n effi c iently
implementing a kids-walk -to-school
program.
II GETTING TO SMAR T GROWTH II
PRACTICE TIP :
Trees Atlanta organizes urban tree
planting projects specifically to
improve the urban environment
with shading to reduce the urban
heat island effect. Guidelines for
tree ordinances and information
related to health, trees, and the
urban environment are available at
http ://www. treesatl anta. o rg/
index.html.
The pedestrian master plan of
Cambridge, Massachusetts, shows
careful attention to the use of
street trees to create the pedes-
trian environment.
canopy and a buffer zone, many neighborhoods use a landscaped
strip between the sidewalk and the street. In the urban core, a
continuous landscaped strip may not be possible or desirable, but
street trees can still be placed in tree boxes or cut-outs. Trees are
not the only option for buffers. Planters made of concrete or
other materials and filled with greenery or flowering plants are
used on many streets. In addition, landscaped islands and medians
can create refuges for crossing pedestrians and can slow through-
traffic by narrowing the lanes of car travel.
To protect these investments over the long term, communities
should provide the policy framework and resources to properly
maintain vegetation. Many communjties have enacted u·ee ordi-
nances that cover issues such as the placement, care, and mainte-
nance of trees (as well as the selection of appropriate species).
The International Society of Arboriculture has developed guide-
lines for developing and evaluating tree ordinances, which can be
found online at http://www.isa-arbor.com/tree-ord/. Some cities,
such as Cambridge, Massachusetts,10 have incorporated u·ees and
vegetated buffers into their pedestrian master plans (see Policy 1).
8'
min.
14'
min .
4·
Encourage safe pedestrian routes to
transit.
In terms of the level of development it
can support, the leve l of ridership it can
capture, 11 or its effectiveness as a means
of reducing vehicle emissions, 12 transit
works best when people can walk to it.
Yet in many places in the U.S., an over-
whelming majority of riders reach transit
by car.
There are two main obstacles that prevent people from walbng
to transit. The first is that street and sidewalk networks in u·ansit
corridors and around bus stops and rail stations are often not
designed with pedestrians in mind. Many bus stops are located in
unsafe locations, such as at dangerous intersections, on highway
shoulders, or on streets with narrow or no sidewalks. A second
problem is that many transit stations are surrounded by large
parbng lots. If the distance a typical person is willing to walk
from transit to a destination is a quarter-nu le, and half of that dis-
tance is taken up by a parbng lot, many walbng trips have been
effectively deterred. Although "park-and-ride" commuter transit
stations can play a useful role in outlying areas, the parbng
requirements and design standards are different in urban settings .
Communities may want to review their transit stations and deter-
mine whether (1) there are ways to make parbng less of a barrier
to pedestrian access and (2) the land devoted to parbng presents
an opportunity for development that will bring more potential
riders within walking distance of the station entrance.
(See Principle 8, Policy 6.)
Many states, local governments, and u·ansit agencies are now pay-
ing more attention to pedestrian safety and accessibility to transit.
Through a collaborative approach, these decision makers can
review the layout, location, lighting, and connectivity between
eristing neighborhoods, new developments, and rail stations and
bus stops to increase safety, shelter, and conve1uence. New Jersey
Transit has received an $810,000 Transportation and Community
and System Preservation grant to upgrade pedestrian and bike
connections between commuter rail stations and the surrounding
townships. In the San Francisco Bay Area, the Metropolitan
Transportation Commission's Housing Incentive Program has
provided funds to construct sidewalks and improve lighting in
housing developments within one-third of a mile of transit sta-
ti o n s. North Am e ri ca n co mmuniti es ca n a lso lo o k a b roa d for
exa mples. Acco rdin g to t ra n sit exp e rt R o be rt C e rve r o, "th e se am -
less inte rfa ce o f bi cy cl e paths and ped es tri an ways with maj or bu s
and r ail lin es" is a m ajo r fac t o r in th e hi gh u·an sit-mode sh are o f
man y E u ro p ea n and Latin Am eri ca n c itie s .13 Bogot a, Colombi a,
and Cop enh age n , D enma rk, stand o ut as citi es that make tran sit
eas il y access ibl e o n fo o t o r bike. Indee d , d es ign ers in Copenh age n
h ave a ppa r e ntly bee n a bl e t o extend the l en g th th at a typi ca l
ped es tri an is wi llin g to wa lk t o transit fro m an ave r age o f a qu ar-
t er-mil e to at leas t six-te nths o f a mil e.14
T he city of G r es ham , O r egon , cr ea t ed th e "P ed-t o-MAX" pro-
gra m to be tte r integr ate th e li ght r ail li ne, whi ch bypasse d down -
town and two o ther d es tinati on a reas, into r etro fitte d mixed -use
n eighb orhood s. T h e progr am 's o bj ecti ve was t o cr ea t e sa fe ped es-
trian areas w h er e traffi c spee ds ar e slowed and t h e stree tscape is
aes th etica ll y a ppea lin g, th e r e by e n co urag in g m o r e p e d es t r ia n
ac ti vity and incr ease d tran sit r id e r shi p . More r ecently, the pro-
gr a m (n ow ca ll e d "Bo ul eva rd s") h as con ce ntra t ed o n r e m oving
access ba rri e rs and r educin g ped es tri an and auto co nflicts whil e
still acco mmod atin g traffi c. So me roa ds ar e as mu c h as nin e lanes
wid e at ce rtain intersecti o ns; o ne foc u s of th e Boulevards p rogram
w ill b e e n a blin g p e d es tri a n s t o cross th ese s tr ee t s sa f e ly.
Improve me nts includ e t ex turi ze d crosswa lks, wid en e d si d ewa lks,
o ff-stree t pathways, midbl ock cross wa lks, inte rsecti o n imp rove-
m e nts, m e di a n s, c urb ex t e n s ion s, s treet li g hting, p e d estri an
pl azas, and o th er ameniti es .1;
5·
Develop walking awareness and promotion programs.
Due to a lack of avail a ble informati o n , m an y resid ents ma y simpl y
not know a bout exi stin g safe and conveni ent pedestri an routes to
th eir d es ired des tin ati on s. Commw1iti es wi th an e ffec ti ve pe d es-
tri an in fo rma ti o n strat egy ca n r educe th e am o un t o f la nd use d fo r
tra n s p o rta ti o n , improve ove r a ll co mmuni ty h ea lth a nd r e du ce
o bes i ty, boos t co mmuni ty interacti on , a nd make n eig hbo rhoods
attrac ti ve a nd li va bl e .
Wa lkin g awa r e ness progr a m s ca n info rm co mmuni ty m e mber s
about pe d estria n infrastru cture a nd se r vices. Newsle tter s, m a ps,
wa lkin g guid es, an d p e d es tri an-sca le d sign age
m ay p ro m o t e ava il a bl e and pl a nn e d w alkin g
ro utes as we ll as th e b e n e fit s o f wa lkin g t o
n earby dest in a ti o n s. Co ll a b o r a ti o n a m o n g
hea lth , sa fety, buil d ing, tran spo rtation a nd land
u se pl a nn e r s, a nd co mmunity d eve l o pm e nt
s t ake h o ld ers ca n fac ilitate a n awa r e n ess ca m -
pa ign th at to u ches up o n a broa d ra nge o f iss u es
and r eac h es a di ve r se audi en ce.
Wa lkin g promo ti o n p rogr a m s ca n subs t anti a t e
wa llcin g as an ac hi ev abl e and co nve ni e nt m ea n s
of tra ns po rtatio n. Loca l wa llcin g eve nts, street
fes ti va ls, a nd co mmuni ty wa llcin g t o urs in trod uce
community m e mber s t o th e ava il a bl e infras truc-
uire a nd ca n be an outl et fo r in fo rm ati o n a bo ut
ava il ab l e routes, h ea lth be n e fit s, sa fe ty, a nd
p edestrian ri g hts and res po n sibiliti es. Public and
pri va t e e ntiti es ca n wo rk t o g e the r t o p rov id e
suppo rt and incenti ves fo r progr am s like wa lkin g
co ntes ts witl1 pri zes, st e p coun te rs, and in fo rm a-
ti o n pac kets. Medi a can wo rk with loca l gove rn-
m ent o ffi cia ls and pl anner s t o sp ec ific a ll y p ro -
m o t e and inform r es id e nts a bout ava il a bl e trail s and routes. F o r
exa mpl e, th e Bou lder D aily Camera n ews p a p e r publi s h es "Get
CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES m
The Ped-to-MAX program made
this intersection safer for pedes-
trians in Gresham.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
PRACTICE TIP :
Bricks are a popular choice in
many communities because of their
attractiveness. However, they
require high maintenance, can cre-
ate a tripping hazard for many
pedestrians, and can serve as an
obstacle for wheelchair users.
Tinted, stamped concrete can serve
as a substitute if care is taken to
reduce gaps and bumps. If bricks
are desired, designers might con-
s ider using them only to line the
edges of a street or sidewalk in
order to mark boundaries.
For more information on designing
facilities that are accessible for
a ll pedestrians, see "Building a
True Community" at www.
access-board.gov.
Out," a section dedicated to updating Boulder, Colorado, resi-
dents about n ew local facilities, trails, laws affecting recreation,
recreational programs, and more.16
6 .
Use modern technology to increase pedestrian safety.
The primary focus of efforts aimed at making streets and side-
walks safer and more accessible is on good engineering and design
practices-narrower streets, pedestrian islands, curb extensions,
and wider sidewa lk s. Undoubtedly, these are the areas where the
greatest gains are to be had. Yet, new techno logy can also play a
role and, in conjunction with better-designed streets and side-
walks, can improve safety for pedestrians, bicyclists, and
motorists. For example, crosswa lks with automated in-pavement
flashing li ghts can be used to notify drivers when pedestrians are
crossing.17 Countdown signals mounted on crosswalk signs indi-
cate to pedestrians the amount of time remaining to safely cross
before the light gives automobile traffic the right of way. For
areas of frequent pedestrian-automobile conflicts, the states of
Florida and Washington have added roving o r an im ated eyes to
traffic lights. By "looking" in the direction of pedestrian activity
or at the crosswa lks, the eye images remind drivers to look out for
people crossing or those who may be active on the side of the
road.18 Infrared pedestrian detectors activate traffic signa ls and
pavement flashers when the pedestrian pa sses the se n so r on one
side of the street until the pedestrian crosses the sensor on the
other side .19 Similarly, when microwave senso rs detect pedestrians
as the light is about to change, they extend the li ght in six -s econd
increments until they no longer detect the pedestrian.20 Audible
sign als are particularly useful for pedestrians with impaired vision,
as well as for those who ha ve been momentarily distracted from
the common visua l signals at crosswalks.
7·
Use visual cues and design elements to indicate pedestrian
rights of way and minimize conflicts.
Automobile and pedestrian interactions can m ake a trip to the
nearby grocery more lik e an obstacle course than a short errand.
Sometimes drivers fa il to look for nonmotorists when turning, or
they sometimes stop in the middle of the crosswa lk. At oth er
times, poorly placed landscaping elements, signs, and utility
equipment may obstruct views for passing walkers and approach -
ing drivers. Pedestrians who do not find a crosswa lk handy may
unexpectedly enter traffic in order to cross a street. Pedestrians,
bicyclists, and drivers a lik e are ofte n unaware of existing traffic
laws or fail to comply with them.
Many traffic authorities are testing new crosswa lk markings, sign
placement, li ghting, and othe r transportation design e lements and
methods to improve driver and pedestrian awareness. Traffic e ngi-
n eering studies can h elp determine where and why problem spots
are occurrin g and wh at may be the proper remedy. Removing
impediments to lines of sig ht, updating and educating travelers
about traffic laws, and using well-articulated markings for pedes-
trian -au tomobile interaction zo n es can reduce th e threa t of acci -
dents. Dangerous intersections can be retrofitted by reducing curb
radii to reduce ve hicl e speed or by a ll owing on-street parking or
curb extensions. These strategies narrow street entrance and exit
points and also improve safety for pedestrians by placing them
where th ey can see the ve hicles better (and where th e drivers can
see them) and by r educing the distance they need to travel to cross
the street. Well-articulated street-leve l or overhead sign s both
warn pedestrians to watch for cars a nd emp hasize the pedestrian
right-of-way to approaching cars. Breaking up street continuity
using colored pavements, signs, or highly visible crosswalks also
can communicate frequent pedestrian activity to drivers.
Policy makers can establish the framework for safe, accessible,
walkable communities by enacting and revising pedestrian right-
of-way laws, and posting information about the rules and fines for
noncompl iance on highly visible street signs. For example, San
Francisco's right-of-way laws fine drivers $104 for failing to yield
to pedestrians in a crosswalk or for not allowing them to clear the
street before driving through a green light.2 1
8.
Situate parking to enhance the pedestrian environment and
facilitate access between destinations.
Parking lot design may force pedestrians to take unsafe routes
between parked and moving cars to reach nearby destinations
without the benefit of sidewalks or other guidance. The design of
large surface parking lots in urban centers may cause pedestrians
to walk further to access otherwise adjacent buildings. Large
parking areas located in front of buildings separate pedestrian
traffic from businesses and leave walkers isolated in an unappeal-
ing environment.
Well-designed parking can actually enhance convenience and
accessibility for those on foot . For example, on-street parking
may reduce auto speed and function as a barrier between pedes-
trians and cars. Parking that incorporates sidewalks, crossings,
signs, and other pedestrian-scaled features and is situated in prox-
imity to multiple destinations can provide a cmrnection to a vari-
ety of activities, instead of making it difficult to go from errand to
errand.
Many cities are now creating parking districts to raise funds to
help solve urban parking problems; land for large parking areas
may be too expensive for each business to provide individually,
yet each business often must provide some parking spaces to
remain competitive. Consolidated structured parking approaches
may actually reduce the overall amount of parking needed in a
business district.
Another strategy is intercept parking, which can be used to relo-
cate land-intensive parking from business centers and neighbor-
hoods to cheaper neighboring areas and communities while main-
taining walkable densities and reducing downtown traffic conges-
tion. Individuals taking advantage of intercept parking should be
provided with logically defined, safe, and continuously marked
paths from parking spaces to final destinations .22
Local government ordinances can provide incentives for pedes-
trian-friendly parking while restricting parking designs that limit
or prevent pedestrian traffic. Parking standards for the city of
Denton, Texas, prohibit locating large parking lots on the side or
in front of buildings and give parking credits to those who
develop on-street parking that is available to the general public.
Additionally, the standards require pedestrian access along a path
or sidewalk.23
9·
Make places walkable for aging populations in response to
new demographics and special needs.
The aging of the U.S. population-by 2030, one in five adults
will be over the age of 65-underscores the importance of creat-
ing walkable communities with older adults in mind.
Incorporating specialized community design strategies, such as
changes in streetscape design, and pursing long-term options
CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES Ill
PRACTICE TIP:
The city of San Diego created park-
ing meter districts to raise revenue
for a variety of strategies to con-
front parking problems: parking
garages, maintenance, informational
distribution, parking advisory
boards, etc. See http://www.
san net. gov/eco nom i c-deve I op me nU
business-ass istance/smal 1-busi ness/
districts.shtml .
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
FINANCE TIP:
Communities can use air quality
standards as an incentive to fund
pedestrian and bicycle facilities.
"In Atlanta, poor air quality from
traffic congestion forced the issue.
The region could not spend federal
transportation funds on new high-
ways until it came up with a plan to
improve air quality. 'The only proj-
ects we could build were the small
projects geared toward the pedes-
trian,' says Tom Weyandt of the
Atlanta Regional Commission, the
metro area's planning agency. 'So
in a sense, we were sort of shocked
into it.' The region is spending $175
million to build 385 miles of side-
walks by 2005. That's a small slice
of the region's 16,000 miles of
roads and highways. But $350 mil-
lion more over 10 years will go to
transportation projects tied to the
development of hiqher-density,
mixed-use areas. Those will be
mostly pedestrian improvements,
Weyandt says. 24
related to housing, transportation, and land use can support walk-
ability among senior citizens, enabling them to remain independ-
ent, to foster better health, and to actively participate in commu-
nity life.
Attention to small design and functional details can significantly
improve seniors' mobility on foot. For example, repairing uneven
sidewalks can reduce the risk of falls. Providing sheltered benches
at regular intervals (and at 90-degree angles to minimize twisting
and turning) can provide resting and meeting places. Traffic engi-
neering strategies-such as extending the duration of crossing
signals and reducing crossing distances at intersections through
traffic calming measures (e.g., "bulb-outs," refuge islands , and
other techniques)-can make it easier and safer for older adults to
cross streets. Moreover, since vision and contrast perception
become impaired with age, communities should provide sufficient
lighting and easy-to-read signage and minimize abrupt grade
changes or steep inclines.
On a larger scale, close attention to the needs of the aging in local
regulations and as part of the development review process can
also help to create walkable environments for older people . For
instance, revising zoning codes to allow for accessory apartments,
"elder cottages," and shared housing can create new opportunities
for older adults to live within walking distance of family, friends,
and basic services. In addition, localities should carefully consider
the location and design of new facilities, such as retirement and
assisted-living communities, to ensure that new developments are
designed to provide walkable connections to nearby neighbor-
hoods and services and provide infrastructure for walking on site.
Shade trees, benches, and attractive design
make this river walk in Savannah, Georgia, a
walkable environment for senior citizens
and other members of the community.
IO.
Retrofit superblocks and cul-de-sac street networks.
Cul-de-sac communities were originally designed to separate
pedestrian and automobile traffic for safety and tranquility pur-
poses.25 Unfortunately, most recent cul-de-sac communities pro-
vide few services and contain paths that end abruptly at subdivi-
sion boundaries, forcing pedesu·ians to take circuitous routes or
cross busy arterials to reach destinations that otherwise are only a
short distance from home. To address this problem, communities
can remove barriers and connect sidewalks and u·ails to services
and places to which residents would usually drive. The Legacy
Plan, adopted by Forsyth County, North Carolina, which
includes Wmston-Salem, calls for greenways and paths that link
mixed-use developments and reduce travel distance between resi -
dences and other destinations.26 Wayfinding signage that displays
the direction to and distance between destinations helps guide
residents and alleviates traveling concerns about time and orien-
tation (for more information, see Principle 5, Policy 4).
Man y localiti es ar e r e t ro fittin g urban ci ty center s by ch an gi n g
large blocks into severa l small bl ocks to attract foot traffic with
co m for tab le a nd co n ve ni ent ro utes betwee n bu sin esses and su r-
roun din g res ide nti al deve lo pm e n t. For exa mple, in Kan sas C ity,
M isso u r i , and D es Moines, Iowa, d es ign ers a r e e mph as i z in g
ped es tri an wa lkways and r ein forc in g the exi sting city grid t o co n -
n ec t su rrow1 din g r es id e n tia l co mmuniti es with do wn town areas.27
RESOURCES:
Howe , Debora h A. Aging and Smart Growth: Building Aging-Sensitive
Connmmities . Translation Paper No. 7. Funders' Network for Smart
Growth and Livab le Communities, December 200 1. Avai lable on line at
http://www.giaging.org/aging%20paper.pdf.
T he Nationa l Center for Bicycling and Wa lking
(http://www.b ikewa lk.org/index.htm)
T he Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center
(http://www.walkinginfo.org/) provides a clear inghouse of informatio n
re lated to walking and community wa lkab ility.
U.S. D eparm1e n t of Transportatio n, Accommodating Bicycle and Pedestrian
Tra ve l: A Recommended Approach, avai lab le at
http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/community/pdf/PedBikeDesignGu ide .pdf.
Nancy Rumpel, "Environ me nta l Forces Associated with Adu lts'
Participation in P hys ica l Activity: A Review," American Journal of
Preven tive Medicin e, 22, no. 3 (2002): 188-198.
See http://www.tra ns.ci. portland.or. us/ p lans/pedestrian masterplan/
Ped.MasterP lan .pdf for Portl and's pedestrian master plan.
"Barriers to C hil d ren Walki n g and Biki ng to School: U nited States, 1999,"
MMWR Weekly, 51, no. 32 (August 16, 2002).
orth Carolina Deparm1ent of Public Instruction, Making Current Trends
in School Design Feasible (Raleigh , 2000).
Ava il ab le at www.sc hoolclearin ghouse.org.
California Safe Routes to School C learinghouse,
http:! /www. 4sa ferou tes.org/ a bo u t_us .h tm I
See http://www.c i.chi.i l.us/cp/Abo utCAPS/HowCAPSWorks/
Wa lkingSc hoo lbus.hon l.
See http://www.cawa lktosc hool.com/stickers.php.
See http://www.wa lktosc hoo l-usa .org/.
See http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globa lwarm ing.nsf/co n tent/
ActionsLoca lHeatlslandEffect.hm1l?OpenDocument for a fact sheet on
tl1e heat islan d effect .
10 More information on Cambridge's pedestrian master plan can be found at
http://www.cambridgema .gov/-CD D/envirotrans/walking/pedplan/index.
hon I.
11 Res ea rc h shows that in ma ny cases, trans it ridership is higher at stations
tlrnt are oriented toward wa lkab le communities with adeq uate pedestrian
in frastructure . "Study Favors Denser D eve lopmen t Along Virginia's
O range L ine," Washingt on Post, J une 29 , 2003, p. CS.
12 A high proportion of vehicle emissions resu lts from cold starts and during
tl1e first few mi n utes of an automob il e trip. See
h ttp://www.fhwa .dot.go v/ en vi ronmen t/aq factbklfactbk l 3 .hon .
13 Robert Cervera, "Green Connectors: Off-Shore Examp les," Planning , 69,
no. 5 (May 2003): 25-29.
1-1 Ibid.
15 Rebecca Ocken , Improv ing Pedestrian Access to 'fransit : City of Gresham~
Ped-to-MAX Program, at h ttp://ntl.bts.gov/data/6_co n ference/
00778496.pdf; and the program ·vveb site at http://www.c i.gresham.or.us/
deparo11ents/cedd/tp/programs_projects.hon#ped.
16 See h ttp ://www.dai lycamera .com/bdc/get_out/.
17 Rock Miller, PE, PTOE and George D ore, PE, "In-Pavement F las h ing
Crosswalks-State of tl1e Art." See http://www.katzokitsu.com/
ingrow1dAash.hon.
18 See http ://www.wsdot.wa .gov/news/nov02/SR99Rovin gEyesFlyer.pdf for a
Ayer pub li cizin g a demonstration of this technology in Wash ington State.
19 See http://www.wa lk.ing info.org/pedsmart/p lport.htm #infrared for a
descr iption of tl 1i s techno logy as it is used in Portland, Oregon.
20 See http://www.walkinginfo.org/pedsmart/nookit.htm.
21 See h ttp ://www.sfsafe.org/bro_hr/ped_right.pdf
CREA TE WALKABLE COMMU NITIES II
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
22 Carfree.com offers an extensive compilation of informati on, ideas, and
guidan ce o n cr eating ca r-free districts and citi es and describes m ethod s
used in existing car-free cities and districts around the world. East Lake
Commons near Atlanta, Georgia, envi sion s tl1e use of intercept parking
on the outskirts of the residential cohousing community to create a more
habitable environment for residents, especially children . See http://www.
eastlakecommons.org/Ideals/vision.htm .
23 See http://www.deve lopmentexce llence.com/tools/docs/denton/
parking.pdf
24 Martha T. Moore, "City, suburban designs cou ld be bad for your health,"
USA Todny, April 30, 2003 .
25 http://www.radb urn .o rg/geninfo/hi story.h011l
26 http://www.co .forsyth.nc.us/CCPB/SEAPfinal.pdf
27 h ttp://www.gouldevans .con1/a rticles/a rt_urbanland _2 000 . h tm
Chapter 5
Foster Distinctive, Attractive
Communities with a Strong
Sense of Place
D emand is growing for town centers, com-
mercial corridors, public plazas, and tran -
sit villages that create a sense of place and
establish a unique identity for a community.
Charles Bohl notes in Plac enzaking: D eve loping
Town Centers, Main Streets, and Urban Villages
that approximately 100 new town center proj-
ects are planned or under construction and
more than 6,000 main street and downtown
revitali zation projects are under way through-
out the country. 1 Developers and builders are
finding that tenants and homebuyers are willing
to pay a premium to liv e in a neighborhood
that is attractive and ped es trian-oriented and
that creates a sense of community.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
In respo n se, t owns and citi es are looking to dev el o p m or e of the
types o f pl aces th at th eir r es id ents ca n t ake prid e in -th e sho p-
pin g dis tri cts and pl azas whe re res ide nts bring out-of-town vis i-
to rs an d fre qu ent on th e weeke nd s, or we ll-d es ign e d , p ed es tri a n-
ori ented gath erin g pl aces that fo cu s on hi stori ca l, cultural, or n at -
ural at tributes-whil e crea tin g o pp o rtunities t o pursu e a ra n ge o f
ac ti viti es in a sm a ll a rea. Man y exi stin g communi ties have su ch
fea tures, an d new d eve lo pm en ts ca n be d es ign e d to crea t e ce n tra l
ga thering pl aces and ar eas of civic pride . By preservi n g a nd m ain -
t ainin g the buil d in gs a nd n atural en vironme nts th at m ake our
co mmunities unique, we a re crea tin g pl aces of las tin g va lu e th at
serve as foca l po ints fo r the current comm unity and fu tu re ge ner-
a ti o n s . Histori ca ll y, the p ublic and priva t e sect ors h ave each
pl aye d a criti cal ro le in cr ea tin g attrac tive an d m em o r ab le pla ces.
As th e reco mme ndati on s be low su gges t , thi s r ema in s tru e today.
I.
Establish revolving loan funds for historic preservation.
H istoric sites an d buil di n gs p lay a va lu abl e ro le in edu ca tin g n ew
ge n eration s abo u t t h e na ti o n 's cul t ure and h eritage . Ma ny of
th ese pl aces a r e unique an d r evere d fea tures in their conununiti es .
Often ti m es, fun ding fo r th e preserva ti o n o f hi st o ri c p ro pe rti es,
n eighborh oods, a nd landmarks compe t es with bud ge tary all o t -
m ents fo r lib raries, pa rks, an d o th er publi c am eni ties. So m etimes,
preservatio n fund ing co m es fro m a stat e program whose budge t
flu ctu at es fr o m year t o year and makes in ves tin g in th e r es tora ti on
and r e ha bilita ti o n o f stru cn1f es less predi ct a bl e and relia bl e .
To en sure ade quate an d sustain ed fund in g for hi storic preserva -
ti on , so me co mmuni ti es an d preservation fo unda ti on s are estab-
li shin g r evo lving loa n fund s. Frequently, these fund s ar e ca pital-
ized with a n initi al gran t or wi th proceeds fro m a bo n d m eas ure.
L o ans are m ad e t o n onprofit o rgani za ti on s and lo cal gov e rn-
m ents, and ar e di sp erse d wi th favora bl e inter es t r ates and 10-t o
20 -yea r r e p ay m e nt t erms. T h e prin cip a l and interes t are th e n
re turn e d to th e loan fund fo r continu ed hi stori c preserva ti on.
New J ersey's r evo lving l oa n fund i s run by th e New J e r sey
H ist ori c T ru st (NJHT), a n onprofit hi sto ri c p re se rvati on orga ni -
za ti o n fo r whi ch the initia l $3 milli on fundin g ca me fr o m a 1987
b o n d ac t . T h e fund i tse lf was es t a bli s h e d by t h e Hi s t ori c
Prese rv ati on R evo lvi n g L oan F und Ac t , which was passe d by the
st at e legislature in 199 1. C urre ntly, NJHT will fin an ce lo an s that
ra n ge be twee n $2 5,000 an d $37 0,0 00. T he inter es t r ate on th ese
loan s is n o more th an 4 pe rce nt, and th e term of th e loan r epay -
m ent p e ri od is u p to 20 yea r s, a lth o u gh th e us u al ra n ge is fr om 5
t o 10 yea r s. 2
In Pe nn sy l va ni a, th e Pit ts bur g h H i s t ory & La ndm a rks
Founda ti o n 's r evo lvin g loan fund has been in exis t en ce sin ce the
196 0s . R ather than simply purch as ing and r es toring buildings , the
fo und a ti on increas in g ly provid es sh o rt-term loan s and t echni ca l
ass istan ce to co mmuni ty-base d o r ga ni za ti on s fo r hi stori c building
res t o r ati o n projec ts th at provide affo rda bl e housing.3
By cr ea ting r evo lvi n g loan fund s, co mmuniti es h ave mor e ass ur-
a nce tha t fun d in g fo r hi s t o ri c p rese r va ti o n will b e ava il a bl e
d es pi te ch angin g eco no mi c tid es .
2.
Create community greens.
In o ld er citi es and tow n s, th ere is o ft e n a criti ca l n ee d for safe ,
r ecrea ti on a l gree n s pace for ci ty r es id ents. O n e way t o ad d ress
this de m and is through the creati o n of "co mmunity g r een s,"
whi c h ar e sh ar ed parks in corp ora ted into res id ential bl ocks . Often
situated in vacant and blighted areas, these greens can provide
accessible and safe places for children to play and can improve
property values.
Usually, these community parks are voluntarily established by
households located adjacent to the vacant property or alley and
are intended for their use only. Resid e nts either apportion parts of
th eir backyards into a larger shared ya rd or garden, or work with
the city government to transform neglected alleys or other prop-
erties into usable green space. In some new developments, shared
ya rds o r squares are incorporated in the overall proj ec t design.
Local governments can encourage residents and/or nonprofit
organizations to create community greens through matching
grants, low -interest loans, design services, fence removal, and free
or low-cost plant supplies.
In a lower-in co me, e thnically divers e neighborhood just south of
downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota, the Hope Community
Development Corporation (CDC) began purchasing houses to
create affordable r e ntal units in the late 1980s. To create a sense
of community and provide shared recreational space, the CDC
remove d private fences and d eve loped a common area with a
pavilion, playground, and garden. Without the use of gates or
fences, the Hope Community used visual cues to establish privacy,
promote safety, and discourage crime around the common area.
In this instance, th e open space is surrounded by hom es fronting
the property, thus allowing residents to observe activity through-
out the day.
3·
Turn underused highways into boulevards.
Many urban highways created during the 1950s and 1960s were
designed to move auto traffic quickly through downtowns. These
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE II
roadways changed the character of many existing n eighborhoods .
In so m e cases, roadways were constructed with more capacity
than was ne eded . This can be th e r es ult of demogra phi cs change,
the addition of transit into an area, or other factors that caused
less demand for the roadwa y than originally predicted . R ather
than leave a large roadway with excess capacity, communities are
retrofitting th em, making th e m multimodal, aesthetically pleas-
ing, and attractive to new development.
Boulevards are intended to serve multiple modes-cars, buses,
bicycl es, ped estrians-efficiently and e legantly. Typically, a boul e-
vard h as four ve hi cular tluough-lan es (two lan es for eac h direc-
tion) with a wide, tre e -lined cenu·al median . On tl1 e outer edges
of the through-lanes are a pair of landscaped medians that sepa-
rate th e faster moving traffic from a slow-moving, one-way traffic
lan e for deliveries, bicycling, and parking. These secondary m edi-
ans can contain anotl1er sidewalk and create a refuge for pedestri -
ans so that they do not have to cross seven lanes of traffic at once .
Wide sidewalks run parallel to the parked cars and , coupled with
the local traffic lane, provide
a substantial buffer between
adjacent buildings and the
faster moving traffic in the
boulevard . The cross-section
shown a t the right illustrates
one example of a boulevard's
configuration and the various
widths associated with ea ch
lane. The schematic is of
Octavia Boulevard, a roadway
under reconstruction in San
Francisco, California.
1 ~'-0"" 18'-0" 9 '-0"" 22'-0 "
IJUut Pdrt.hq k~~>> Rai sed l11n>ugh
!>I da.uattl I ;<nP .. a...li:=-1'1 T ,.,ff;,.! :.no
Courtesy: San Francisco Transporta tion Authority
PRACTICE TIP:
Community Greens, a nonprofit
organization based in Arlington,
Virginia, is dedicated to helping
communities create these smal 1-
scaled neighborhood backyards and
has developed case studies, educa-
tional mate r ials, and techn i cal
assistance. For more information,
see http://www.communitygreens.
Cross-section of the planned
Octavia Boulevard in San Francisco,
California.
9 "·0" 18'·0"' 12'·0''
Raised Ttlrwgh Ra se a A:cess Part;lrg t-~~
•.io'4:i.l'I T~...i:i.l'la
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
PRACTICE TIP :
In its groundbreaking city plan, Blueprint 2020, Denver has pioneered a
new concept of "zoning for streets." Conventionally, categorizing street
function forms a hierarchy of streets, ranging from those that are primarily
for travel mobility (arteria ls) to those that are primarily for access to prop-
erty (local streets). Thi s kind of classification ignores or de-emphasizes
modes of travel other than cars and does not cons id er surrounding land
uses. Under Denver's system, streets are defined by their relationship to
adjacent land use and their function for pedestrians, bicyclists, and transit.
In Denver, multimodal streets are zoned as residential st reets , main streets,
mixed-use streets, commercial streets, industrial streets, landmark streets,
and one-way couplets. For example, a main street serves the highest-inten-
sity retail and mixed land uses in the downtown and neighborhood centers.
The streets typ ically have between two and four travel lanes with on-street
parking. To create a pedestrian-friendly atmosphere, main stre ets will likely
have wide sidewa lks, street furniture (e.g., benches, information kiosks,
trash receptacles, etc.l, outdoor cafes, plazas, and other public spaces.4
In San Francisco, th e 1989
Loma Prieta ea rthquake severe ly
damaged the e levated Ce ntra l
Freeway. For many years, the
elevated freeway created a physi -
cal divide in th e nei g hborh oods .
The freeway's traffic noises and
visua l barrier concerned resi-
dents, and the overpass created
an environment that limited the
success of the neighborhood's
commercial district. By 1998,
residents voted against rebuild-
ing the e levated freeway and in
favor of constructing an at-grade
thorough fare on Octavia
Boulevard, whi ch runs next to
the freeway.
Octavia Boulevard is designed to
carry relatively rapid and nonlo-
cal traffic. It a ll ows for eas i er
through-driving than norm al ly
configured streets because slow-
goin g traffic and parking maneu-
vers are contai n ed in the one-
way traffic lanes on each side of
the boulevard. To balance its
function as an arterial, Octavia's
Rendering of Octavia Boulevard,
San Francisco, California.
pedestrian realms create a safe and inviting space for nonmotor-
ized travel.
Commu niti es ca n work with their state Departments of
Transportation (DOTs) and their local public works engineers to
pursue opportunities to design streets that meet multiple goals.
Context-sensitive design approach es are being impl emented and
supported thrnughout the country. Whether retrofitting an existing
roadway or planning for mobility needs in the future, transporta-
tion planners should lo ok for opportunities to create streets that are
inviting, serve all users, and create a quality urban environme nt.
4 ·
Develop a comprehensive wayfinding system in town centers.
Whether a newcomer, a tourist, or a l o n g-t im e resident,
"wayfinders" not on ly he lp people find whi ch direction they need
to go to get to their destination, but they can also connect people
to local hi story, unique neighborhood features and attractions,
and the n earest transit stop. To be successful, wayfinding sign s
must work for both motorists traveling at fast speeds and slow-
moving pedestrians w ho may be exp lorin g sites along the way.
T hey must organize a large amount of inform ation in visually
simpli stic ways with co nsistency in size, graphics, and color.
Designers of wayfi nding systems use the signs as opportuniti es to
promote the diverse activities in a c ity. In many downtowns,
chambers of commerce and bus in ess improvement districts are
discovering th at wayfindi n g systems ca n increase attendance at
featured venues.5
Pedestrians are often willing to walk farther if directional in forma-
tion is ava il ab le and easy to understand. Walk! Philadelphia is a
signage program geared toward pedestrians that includes neighbor-
Walk! Philadelphia signs help
pedestrians orient themselves
downtown. Design by Joel
Katz Design Associates, 1995.
hood maps illustratin g
th e stree t netwo rk and
loc ati o n s o f attrac -
ti on s a nd landmarks.
Funding for th e proj-
ec t was p rovid e d by
g rants a nd ca pital
fund s fr o m th e city
bud get. The city co lle cts fe es fr om th e ve nues li sted on the signs to
fund annual mainte nan ce.
In th ese cases, and in man y o th e rs aro und th e co un try, wayfi ndin g
sys t ems ar e abo ut m or e than ge ttin g fr om point A t o point B: th ey
cr ea t e an id entity fo r the ci ty, bring n ew vi sito rs t o attracti on s, and
m ake it eas ier fo r peopl e to ge t ac qu ainte d with th e town .
5 ·
Use distinctive public transit to increase the attractiveness of
neighborhoods.
Tran sit is n ot u suall y th o u ght o f as a t ool fo r cr eatin g a se nse o f
pl ace, but in citi es like Bould er, Color ado, and P ortl and , Oregon ,
n ew bus and stree t car sys t e ms are cr ea tin g di stincti ve and uni fy-
in g links in n eighborhoods. In th ese pl ac es, th e transit sys t e ms ar e
des ign ed to re fl ect th e charac t er o f tli e n eighborh oods, eac h wi t h
a uniqu e id enti ty and am eniti es.
In 1989, Bould e r 's Ci ty C o uncil all o cated fe d era l and city rev -
enues to pl an , imple m ent, and o pera t e a co mmunj ty -base d tran sit
sys t e m . G O B o uld e r, th e city's tra n s it a ge n cy, c r ea t e d t h e
Communi ty T ransit Network (CTN), th e mjss io n o f whi ch was
to run a fl ee t of sm all , co lo rfull y des igne d bu ses with hi gh-fre -
quen cy, in ex p en sive, and direct se rvi ce within th e city. Presentl y,
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE II
CTN s pon sor s six indi vi du a l bu s lines-H o p , Sbp, Jump, Bound ,
D as h , a nd Sta mpe de-each with di stin cti ve id e ntiti es.
A citi ze n d es ign p an e l deve lo ped co mmunj ty -base d d es ign guid e -
lin es fo r eac h of the bu s lin es . Al l six of the fl ee t s ar e comprise d of
n e ig hbo rh oo d-sc al e -size d ve rucl es a ppro priate fo r Bo uld e r 's con -
t ext. E ach lin e is bri ghtl y co lo r ed and refl ec ts va ri ou s th e mes. For
in st an ce, th e Sbp Lin e, whi ch se rves r id e r s wh o co mmu te t o
work or sc h oo l durin g th e day and u se th e bus fo r a ni ght out o n
the t own , has graprucs th at show an en er gized co mmuter with a
co ffee cup . T h e Jump lin e , whi ch trave ls se mirural stree ts t o a
co mmuni ty o utsid e o f Bo uld e r, di spl ays cows, snowfl a kes, a win d -
mill , and a cozy h o m e-a ll thin gs trave le rs wo uld see o n th e
ro ute. In total, the CTN m oves 15,000 p asse n gers each day and
co ntinu es t o ex pa nd its sys t em .6
In O rego n , a new sys t em links tli e muse ums of P o rtl an d's down-
t own cultural di stri ct to the ga l-
le ri e s, r es t aurants, and sh o ps o f
th e r evi talj ze d P ea rl Di stri ct and
Nortl1 wes t/No b Hill n e ig hb or-
h ood . T h e stree t ca r also trave ls
throu gh an em e rg in g n eighbor -
h ood , th e Ri ve r Distri ct , whi ch
has 34 acr es o f ce ntra ll y loca t ed
a ban don e d r ail yards th at will be
t ra n sform ed into n ew h o u s ing .
T he River D is trict Vis io n, a plan
ado p ted b y th e c ity in 1992,
positi on s th e street ca r as a cen -
tr a l f ea tur e t o co nn ec t l oft s,
a pa rtm ents, condo nliniums, and
bu s in esses in th e di s tri ct with
Streetcar Lofts Condominiums
designed by Robert S. Leeb
Architects + Planners.
Copyright 2002
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH I I
PR ACTI CE TI P:
The Project for Public Spaces
( P PSl, a nonprofit organization
based in New York City, uses a
"place audit" to get community
input about the comfort and image
of a place (which could refer to a
street, plaza, or neighborhood cor-
ner). Participants are asked to
judge the assets and problems of
the space and to identify the short-
and long -term opportunities that
they envision for the place. This
experiential tool is easy to use and
can engage the public in the plan -
ning process to create a place that
is both attractive and reflects the
community's values. (For more
information, see http://www.
pl acematters.com/ PI acemak i ng/
Placemaking_vl .pdf.l
the rest of downtown Portland and the city's li ght-rail sys t em .
The n ew streetcar ha s become s uc h a defining feature of the area
that o n e condom inium project, the Streetcar Lofts, urges
prospective buyers and residents to "go by streetca r."7
6.
Highlight cultural assets through public art and event nights.
T h e arts are an essentia l way of establi shin g a sense of place in a
community. Whetl1er through public sculptures woven into th e
streetscape, murals on building walls, or galleries sponsoring
n e ighborhood walks, th e arts bring vitality to urban areas in large
and small towns alike. Art-re lated activities create a broader sense
of community in neighborhoods and connect th em to other
places. For exa mple , researchers Mark Stern and Susan Seifert
found tl1at most of Philadelphia's arts and cultural activity is con-
centrated in n eighborhoods n ea r the center of tl1e city. They dis-
covered tilat tiles e centrally located neighbo rhoods have a higher-
tilan-average mix of incomes and professions, and that 80 percent
of tl1 e peopl e who participate in eve nts there came from else-
where in til e region.8
In 1988, the city of Tucson, Arizona, adopted the Tucson Arts
District Master Plan, which is managed by tile nonprofit Tucson
Arts District Partnership. The partnership repres ents citywide
inte rests of the arts, busin esses, economic d eve lopment, tourism,
historic preservation, and neighborhood communities. T he dis-
trict was created to funnel arts and cultural resources into a cen-
tral area til at would help to rejuvenate Tucson's core. To bring
peo ple to tile district, the partnership hosts a variety of activities
tilroughout tile year, including art walks, street fairs, and free p e r-
formances.9
Los Angeles, California, is often considered tile mural capital of
the world. Estimates calculate tilat there are more than 1,500
public murals painted on wa ll s both i11doors a nd outdoors . Over
tl1 e decades, til ese murals have reflected til e hi story and changing
culture of the city. From publicly sponsored New D ea l art to con-
t e mporary grassroots scenes on the sides of buildings, mura ls
h ave become an express ion of the times in the city. As Los
Angeles ha s realized tile uniqu en ess of its publi c a rt, government
institutions (such as public librari es, police stati ons, and the
Metropolitan Transit Authority), corporation s, and community
organizations have begun to sponsor tile upkeep and creation of
new murals.
These examples show tilat public art and artists' districts can be a
powerful attraction for cities. By featuring art tilat occurs organi-
cally or by sponsoring special events, town s and cities can highlight
their unique character and bring joy to residents and tourists alike .
7 ·
Use asset-based tools and resident engagement to reflect
community values.
Creating a sense of place can be a daunting task for a community.
In underdeveloped, transitional, or blighted areas, residents may
be overwhelmed by daunting chall e nges and may find it difficult
to focus on tile assets that are already there. "Community Asset
Inventories" ar e tools that en courage residents to start witil til e
resources that already exist in the community: tile skills and abili-
ties of residents, tile work of neighborhood associations, and tile
exis ting institutions in an area. Using asset inventories can help
residents focus o n protecting and enhanc ing til e peo ple and tile
places tiley value while adopting new ideas to help tilem meet
their goals.
In Washington, D.C., the city's Office of Planning h as embarked
on the ambitious Strategic Neighborhood Action Plan (S AP)
program to focus o n short-term goa ls id entified by commun ity
residents throughout the District. Since January 200 1, city plan-
ners ha ve met with residents in D.C.'s 39 neighb orhood clusters,
and the District has generated interest through public notices and
listserve an nounceme nts. Through these multiple meetings, par-
ticipants create action plans that detai l the top priorities in each
neighborhood (suc h as street cleaning and a greater police pres-
en ce.) The planning office then assigns the relevant city agency to
implement the plans, and the mayor's office uses t h e SNAPs to
inform and guide decisions on the city budget. SNAPs have given
D.C. residents an opportunity to id entify how t h ey want to
improve their neighborhoods and make them more attractive
places to live, work, and play.
Local gove rnm ents and orga ni zatio ns can use asset in vento ri es,
larger neighborhood action-plannin g efforts, or place-based
audits to provide a tangible and interactive experience for resi-
dents. Through these mechanisms, distinctive a nd attractive
places are c reated based on the va lues of the community.
8 .
Revitalize the waterfront.
For the past severa l decades, communities have discovered that
revitalized waterfronts are a considerable asset. Riverfronts th at
have been sepa rated from n eighborhood s by roadways, railways,
or large-sca le industrial development have been opened up and
revitalized with parks, trails, housin g, e ntertainm e nt, and water-
related activities. C iti es can take th e first step in recognizing this
natural resource a nd work with commw1ities, deve lopers, parks
departments, and c ivic organizations to make it a destination. By
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES W ITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE Ill
targeting state and federa l brownfield, transportation, and eco-
nomic development dollars to waterfront areas, cities can provide
ea rl y funding for revitalization initiati ves.
Baltimore's Inner Harbor, once home to factories and maritime
industries, began its long process of revitalization in the 1970s.
Many of the parce ls along the waterfront were contaminated by
past industrial use, making their redevelopment even more cha l-
lenging. An aquarium, hotels, a convention hall, and a three-acre
retail and enterta inm ent comp lex ca ll ed Harborplace-all of
which capita li zed on tourism as an economic development
su·ategy-were the earliest parts of the Inner Harbor's u·ansfor-
mation. Recently the city has introduced a more diverse mix of
uses to the area: residences, office space, and non-tourist-oriented
retail. Through its ambitious brownfields program, assisted by
Ma ry land's Vo luntary C lea nup Program, many of the po lluted
in dustrial areas adjacent to the Inner Harbor have been cleaned
up and are now being reused. As C. William Struever, head of
Struever Bros., an infill development firm, noted, "Ba ltimore has
a g lorious opportunity created by tlie geography of the h arbor,
which brings the waterfront right into the heart of downtown. I
don't tlllnk there's anyplace e lse that has the same intimacy and
diversity and exc item ent-and all so close to the h arbor. We've
on ly begun to see wh at's possible. Water is a magic thing."10
In New York C ity, the 550 -acre Hudson River Park has redefined
the formerly commercia l and industri al edge of the city as public
open space complete with a bikeway/walkway, a marine san ctuary,
13 public piers, and new park.lands. T h e trail that runs tlirough
the park and into northern Manhattan conn ects n eighborh oods
and brings residents and commuters to the once ina ccessib le river.
In 1973, r es id ents on the west sid e of Manhattan defeated propos-
als to rebuild the West Side Highway as a tunneled major road-
FINANCE TIP :
The Waterfronts Florida
Partnership, launched by the
Florida Coastal Management
Program in 1997, helps participat-
ing communities revitalize, renew,
and promote interest in their
waterfront districts. Between 1997
and 2001, the Florida's
Department of Community Affairs
designated nine Waterfronts
Florida Partnership Commu nities.
Each received two years of techni-
ca l and financial ass istance, funded
in part by state monies from the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration's coastal grant pro-
gram. Results have included nearly
7,000 hour s of volunteer services;
$143,362 in private donations; and
$7.4 million in other public invest-
ment that resulted in completion of
16 capital projects, from creating
boardwalk features to beach
cleanups. (For more information,
consult http://www.dca.state.fl.us/
f de p/ de p/w ate rfro nts/w ate rfro n t.
htm.)
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
Hudson River Bikeway, New York,
New York.
way built under fill ex tending into th e Hudso n Ri ve r. Subse qu ent
design s deve lo ped by th e Wes t Sid e Wa t erfront P an e l ca ll ed fo r a
g r an d boul eva r d wit h a wid e, pl ante d m e di an ; safe r pe des tri a n
cross in gs; an d a bikeway/wa lkway on the wes t e rn edge, with a lin -
ea r park. Th ese id eas wer e to become the bas is fo r the current
design of t h e park. In 1998, Gove rn o r P at aki sign ed into law the
Hudso n Ri ve r P ark Ac t , whi ch fo rmali ze d th e crea ti on o f Hudso n
Ri ver Park an d Hudson Ri ver Park T ru st-a city/s tate partner -
ship charge d with the d es ign , con structi on , and o pera ti on o f th e
Hudso n Ri ver P a rk. T he po pul ari ty o f thi s initi ati ve is evi den ce d
by th e n ea rl y on e millio n visito rs wh o ex pl ore th e city's n ewest
park every yea r. 11
Offi ce sp ace or p arkl and, wa terfront pro per ty is a limited asse t in
alm os t a ll co mmuniti es . It r equires judi ciou s pl annin g to make
th e m ost of prec ious space t h at is oft en in access ibl e, neglec ted, o r
con tamin ated fro m prior in d u strial use.
9·
Make retail centers distinctive and attractive
destinations.
In m an y pla ces, s t ores are h o u se d in cooki e -cutter
region al m all s surround ed by surface parkin g o r ca n
be fo und in strip m all s that a pp ea r at regular interva ls
a lo n g bu sy a rte ri als. In creas in g ly, these deve lo pm ents
are fa ilin g. C h arl es Bo hl reports th at "s in ce the 1980s,
ret ail space h as bee n growin g fi ve t o six tim es fas t er
than r et ail sa les: the U nite d Sta t es is c urrentl y Aooded
with a lm os t 5 billi o n squ a r e fee t o f r e t a il s pace o f
w hi c h 500 milli o n s qu a r e f ee t i s vaca nt ."12
Pri cewa t erho u seCoopers and L endLease p ointe d out
in a 2003 survey, "Emer gin g T r ends i11 R ea l Es t ate,"
that "[f]a mili ar probl ems, cata logu e d in p as t E merging Trends ,
per sist in ma ny suburban markets [ ... ], including [ ... ] ban al co m -
m e r cial st r ips and gaso lin e a lleys and th e de mi se o f o ld er, less
strat egica ll y loca t ed region al mall s ."13
While sh o ppin g continu es to be a great Am erican pas tim e, peopl e
are looki ng fo r n ew, mo re attrac ti ve pl aces to sho p. In r es pon se,
re tail er s h ave been loca ting st ores on o ld er m ain su·ee ts and in
"lifestyle ce n te rs"-open -a ir sh o pping m a ll s that a re loca t ed in
t own ce nter s . Toda y's a ttra cti ve a nd su ccess ful r e t ailing ce nter s
pay ca r e ful att en tion to the ped estrian ex peri en ce. T h ey also ca pi -
ta li ze on inter es ting ar chitec tural des ign t o attrac t bo th ret ail t en -
a nts an d s urrow1 ding o ffi ce and res id e nti al deve lo pm e nt.
T h o u g h con struct ed in the 192 0s, the Country C lub Plaza in
Ka n sas C ity, M isso uri , o ffe rs m a n y lesso n s fo r co nte mpo r ary
r e t ail des ign . T hi s low-ri se landmark, on e o f th e fir st sh o ppin g
ce nters in th e co untry, is a pedes tri an-o ri e n ted, o pe n-air marke t
d es igned with Spanish-style ar chitecture and adorned with public
art, pl azas, an d fo untain s. Next t o the hi st ori c m arke t , a 60-acre
bu sin ess di strict evo lve d over th e fo ll owi n g deca des to bo tl1 pro-
vid e jo bs fo r res id ents in th e hi gh -de nsity a parunen t bl ocks sur-
rounding the ar ea a nd crea t e st ro nge r m a r ke t d e m and fo r th e
pl az a's co mmer cial deve lo pment. Cele bra tin g its 80th birthd ay in
2003, th e p laza still e nd ur es as a sho ppin g des tin a ti o n , eve n as
additi on a l r etail , o ffi ce, and parkin g p ro ject s h ave bee n add ed t o
th e origin al cen te r. T h e building 's innova ti ve des ign and hi gh-
qu ali ty constructi on h ave en sure d th at th e sho ps stay lease d with
re tail o utl ets and services . While th e t e na nts m ay have chan ge d
ove r th e yea r s, the pl aza is still a ce ntral gath erin g s po t fo r loca ls
and tourists ali ke.
B y th e 199 0 s, B e th es d a, Ma r y l a nd , a fir s t-rin g suburb o f
Was hin g ton , D.C., h ad grown into a den se office and re ta il di s-
trict with no focal po int. To cr ea t e a vital to wn center, th e F ed e ra l
R ea lty In ves tme nt T ru s t e mba rke d o n a mul t iph ase d p roj ec t
call ed Beth es da R ow. N ea rin g compl eti o n , th e project is a mix o f
r en ova t ed and n ew structures that will h ou se 600 ,000 squ are fee t
of ret ail and office space . Shops and restaurants are des igned t o
evo ke va ri e ty and uniqu en ess, fe aturin g differ ent st o r e fr o nt sty les
and a mix of n ati on a l and loca l t en ants. In deve lopin g th e p rojec t ,
Fed e ral Rea lty co n vin ce d co un ty offici als to es ta bli sh a ca fe zo n e
betw ee n th e stree t and th e sid ewalk and t o cr eate an in viting en vi-
ronment for din ers and pedes tri an s. A fownain, outdoo r se atin g,
and sho ps are an attrac ti ve res t sto p for cy cli sts a nd wa lke rs who
u se th e po pular 11.5-mil e Ca pital C r esce nt Trail that co nn ec ts
the Distri ct's G eor ge t own n eighbo rh ood t o Be th es da .
Crea tin g attrac ti ve retail is a via bl e bu sin ess strat egy fo r d evel o p-
er s and a boon fo r th e r es id e nts and con sum er s who sho p th er e .
The p rojec t becom es more th an ju st a place t o bu y goods: it ca n
becom e a ce nterpi ece for the co mmuni ty.
IO .
Use transportation enhancements funds to create places
of distinction.
E s t a blish e d und e r the Inte rm o d a l Surfac e Tran s p o rta ti o n
Effi c i e n cy Ac t of 19 91 (ISTEA), th e T r a n s p o rta ti o n
E nh a n ce m e nts (TE) p rogr a m, a dmini s t e r e d b y th e Fe d e r a l
Hi g h way Admini s tra ti o n (FH WA), provid es fundin g t o s tate
transp ortati on agencies t o develop transportation proj ec t s that
imp rove co mmuni ty qua li ty o f li fe. T h e program direc ts st a t e
DOTs t o a ll oca t e 10 p e r ce nt o f th e ir Sur face T ran s p o rtati o n
P rogr am fund s t o tra nsp ortati on enh ancem ents . U nd er th e pro-
gram , 12 acti viti es are eligibl e for fundin g . They includ e provid-
ing fa ciliti es fo r pedes trian s and bi cyc li sts, ac quirin g sceni c ease -
FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE Ill
m e nts and sce ni c o r hi storic sites, beautifi ca ti on proj ec ts, hi st o ri c
prese rv ati o n , and r eh a bilitati o n o f hi st ori c tran s po rtati on stru c-
tures . Accordin g t o F HWA, m o r e th a n $2 .4 billi o n h as bee n
in ves t e d a round th e country in over 12,000 projects since 199 1.
C o mmuniti es ac ro ss the country h ave u se d T E fundin g t o
improve s tree t sca p es in t ow n cente rs a nd t o cr ea t e a ttrac ti ve
b r idges and p a ths fo r n o nmo t o ri ze d tra ve l th a t becom e loca l
ga th e rin g pl aces. In 1994 , M inne ap o li s, M inn eso t a, use d $2.2
million of T E funds to convert the Sto ne Arch Bridge, a histo ric
rail bridge th at co nnec t ed the wes t sid e o f th e M iss iss ippi Ri ve r t o
marke ts outsid e o f th e city, into a bi cy cl e, pe des tri an , and tro ll ey
brid ge connec tin g d o wnto wn t o th e U ni vers ity o f M inn eso ta
campus . From the po pular brid ge, tra ve lers enj oy a vie w o f the
do wntown sky lin e, St. An th o n y F a ll s, a nd th e o ld mill s o n t h e
ri ve r 's banks. T h e brid ge, li s t e d o n th e Na ti o n a l R egist e r o f
Hi s t o ri c Pl aces, h as s purre d th e r ed eve l o pm e nt o f th e "Mill
Di stri ct ," whi ch wi ll h o use a muse um, o ffic es, and res id en ces and
acce ntuat e the ar ea 's industri al h eritage. The bridge is al so p art o f
a la r ge r h eritage tra il a nd h os t s a summ e r a rts fes ti val th a t is
wid ely attended . T h e brid ge h as becom e a va lu e d landm ark in th e
city o f Minnea po li s . For desc ripti o n s o f m an y other TE projec ts,
see th e National Transportation Enhan cements Cl ea ringh ou se at
http ://www.enhan ce m e nts.or g/.
C h arl es C. Bo hl , Placemaking: Developing To wn Centers, Ma in Streets, and
Urban Vi llages (Was hin gton , D.C.: Urban La nd Institute, 2002), 9.
2 For more info rmation, consu lt h ttp://www.njht.org/.
3 For more in fo rmation , co nsul t
h ttp ://www.p hI f.org/services/ pres loa n fud . h tm I.
4 For more in fo r mation, co nsult
h ttp ://www.denve rgov.o rg/deph om e.as p ?de pid; 13 2 3.
PRACTICE TIP:
The Del a ware De partm e nt of
Tran sportation <DelDOT l modifi ed
its al location of TE funds in order
to make the program more efficient
for lo c al government s. De lDOT
replac ed the 20-percent municipal
match w ith a sliding scale, under
which municip al contribution go es
down or up, dependin g on the pro -
ject 's size . Del DOT repl ac ed the
two-year project submission and
review cy cle with a rolling submi s-
sion policy th at allows municip ali -
ties to submit projects for immedi -
ate review and authorization at any
time. Finally, DelDOT increased the
maximum reimbursement for a
project from $500,000 to $1 mil-
lion.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
Jeffry Corbin and Wayne Hunt, "A Single Voice," American City and
County 11 8 (Mar ch 2003), 20-29.
For more in formatio n , co nsult
http:/ /www.ci.bo uld er.co . us/ gobou ld er/h an l/tra nsi tli ndex. h an 1.
For more information about the Streetcar Lofts, see Robert S. Leeb
Architects and Pl anners LLC Web site :
http ://www.rslarc.com/lndex2 .h011l.
Fw1d ers' etwork for Smart Growth and Livable Commw1iti es, Th e Arts
and Smart Growth: The Role of Arts in Pla ce Making, Tra nslation Paper No.
12 (Ap ril 2003).
For more information, consult http ://www.tu cso nartsdi strict.o rg/.
10 Edward G unts, "Ro llin g Out th e Welcome Mat," Baltimore Sun, J anu ary 9,
2000.
11 http://www.hud sonriv erp ark .o rg
12 C harl es C. Bohl , Pla cemaking: Developing Town Centers, Main Streets, and
Urban Villages (Washington, D .C.: U rb an Land Institute, 2002), 17.
13 PricewaterhouseCoopers and LendLease LLP, 2003 E1J1erging Trends in
Real Estate (New York: October 2002), 36.
Chapter 6
Preserve Open Space,
Farmland , Natural Beauty , and
Critical Environmental Area s
T he U.S. Department of Agricu lture esti -
mates that as of 2001, only 7 percent of
st ate, local, and private land area in the U.S.
was developed into residential, commercial, and
transportation uses.' Of the remaining land, 28
percent r emain ed forestland, 62 percent was
farm and ranchland (working lands), and 3 per-
cent was other rural land (e.g ., marshland, bar-
ren land, and farmsteads).2 These figures give
the impression that the U .S . has an abundance
of open space. Yet, the public continues to vote
to a ll ocate resources to preserve more open
space and working lands . Since 2001, $11.7
billion h ave been added to public coffers.3 T h e
magnitude of public support has placed open
space preservation at the center of many state
and local land-use programs.4
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
Why is th ere so much support for preserving open space and work-
ing lands if the U.S. has 13 times more wetlands, forestland, and
working lands than it has developed land ?5 The answer relates to
the close nexus between open space and quality of life, economi c
development, and environm ental protection. The 2000 Census
reported that over 80 percent of Americans live in metropolitan
areas. For many of these people, undeveloped land in their area is
their immediate concern . The relative abundance of undeveloped
land nationally is of little comfort to the family who drives hours to
get to the countryside or n atura l areas. This type of public concern
led Sonoma County, California, to preserve local working lands
and to create green "community separators" in order to direct
growth to existing areas and to create a sense of place.6
Local governments across the country are a lso realizing that
locally accessib le open space can make a community an attractive
location for potential employees, raise property va lu es, and stimu-
late tourism. Plentiful and accessible open space and working
lands were factors in Hewlett Packard, Intel, and Hyundai's deci-
sions to locate in Portland, Oregon.7 Open space and working
lands also require fewer communi ty services tl1an residential or
commercial development, which allows localities to save money
for other fiscal priorities.
Preservation efforts are also driven by the environmenta l impacts
of losing open space and working lands. Forests, wetlands, mead-
ows, and other natural areas provide essential ecosystem services
such as filtering runoff, storing carbon emissions, and maintain-
ing wildlife habitat. These and other ecoservices can be damaged
as open space is replaced with parking lots, malls, office buildings,
driveways, and other structures. When these ecosystem services
are sufficiently degraded, communities are often forced to spend
large sums of money to construct technologies, such as water
treatment plants, that mimic natura l functions.
T h e following policies and su·ategies represent a broad range of
tools to promote open spa ce and the preservation of working
lands as part of a community's larger development process. Each
of these policies and strategies may not be applicable in all com-
munities, but th ey can provide a starting point for communities to
create and preserve special human and wild life ha bi ta ts.
Furthermore, these policies are best used to create a regional
open-space n etwork that h e lp s id entify which lands sh ou ld be
preserved and which lands sh ould be developed.
I.
Link land conservation with other smart growth principles.
Open space conservation is closely tied with other principles of
smart growth, such as Principle 3, "create a range of housing
opportunities and choices," and Principle 7, "strengthen and
direct development toward existing communities." It is important
to implement these principles in combination with open-space
preservation efforts. Without them, conservation efforts can push
new demand into adjacent areas by simply shifting land conver-
sion to other loca liti es . Smart growth neighborhoods are impor-
tant for effective land conservation because compact, mixed-use
developments use less land than the same number of units devel-
oped in the typical iow-density pattern, thereby relieving growth
pressures on open space.8 Reusing previously developed land has
a similar impact.
In 2002, President George Bush noted that "one of the best ways
to arrest urban sprawl is to develop brownfields and make them
productive pieces of l and, where people can find work and
employment. By one estimate, for eveiy one acre of redeveloped
brownfi e ld s, we save 4 .5 ac r es o f o p e n s p ace ."9 St . L o ui s,
Misso uri , is atte mptin g t o ma ke thi s conn ec ti o n th rou g h o ut th eir
m e t ro p o lita n ar ea. T h e c ity is workin g with th e surroundin g
muni cip a liti es to preser ve o pe n s pace and direc t growth t o exi st -
in g co mmuniti es. '0 T heir r egio nal blu e print pl aces a lar ge focu s
o n r ed ev el o pin g brownfield s to ac hi eve th eir goa ls.
T he st at e o f Massachuse tts has connect e d severa l smart growth
principles throu gh its Commwli ty Preserva ti o n Ac t. T h e act p ro -
vid es state matchin g funds t o lo ca l gove rnments th at adopt fund -
in g progra ms by loca l re fer endum . It r equires th at at leas t 10 pe r -
ce nt of th e co mbin e d st at e-loca l fun ds in each co mmuni ty mu st
be exp end ed o n ea ch o f three ca t egories of act ivity: a ffo rd a bl e
h o u sin g, o p en space, and hi st o ri c and co mmuni ty prese r va ti on ;
t h e r e m aining 70 p ercent ca n be a ll oca t ed to a n y o f th e t hree
ar eas.11 By co mbinin g diffe re nt goa ls w ithin a single ac t , ad vocates
for h ou sin g, co mmwli ty prese rva ti o n , an d o p en s pace prot ec ti o n
begin t o connec t their inter es t s and co ll abor at e on all oca ti on s o f
m o n ey th a t will d e li ve r multipl e goa ls-projec t s th a t d e li ve r
hou sin g, p ro tec t o pe n s pace, and revi t a li ze co mmuni ties-inst ea d
o f re mai1lin g indi ffe re nt o r eve n o pp osed to o n e an o th er 's inter-
es t s . Ac hi ev in g multipl e goa ls throu g h a single in ves tme nt is a
h allm ark o f smart growth .
2.
Use land management techniques and acquisition to protect
drinking water sources.
A recen t E nviro nme n ta l P rotection Age n cy (EPA) study fo r e-
cas ted a n eed for ca pi ta l spen din g of more than $150 billion ove r
the next 20 yea r s to en sure the continue d provisio n o f sa fe dri nk-
in g wa t er.12 T h e m ajo ri ty o f thi s es timat e was de ri ve d fr o m th e
n eed t o build wa t e r trea tment, storage, a nd d istr i bution in fra-
PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENV IRONMENTAL AREAS II
structure. M an y co mmuniti es ar e see kin g t o r edu ce th e n eed for
cos tl y infras tructure by prese rvin g and m an agin g wa te r sh ed lands
for source wa t er pro tec ti o n.
Prese rvin g o p en space upstrea m can h el p prot ec t drinking wa t er
r esources by filt erin g out contaminants and ch e mic al po lluta nts
be for e they ente r th e co mmuni ty's wat er sys t e m. C riti ca l areas fo r
wa t e r-q ua li ty pro t ec ti o n includ e we tl an ds, bu ffer zo n es, r i pa ri an
co rrid or s, and fl oodpl ai n s. Wetl ands ar e es peciall y criti ca l in main-
t aining wate r qu a lity since th ey are n atural filtr a ti o n pl ants . As
wa t er 's fl ow -rat e s lows, wa t e r is filt er e d as se dim e nts se ttl e o ut.
T r ace m e t a ls bound to cl ay carried in run o ff a lso d ro p o ut and
beco m e sequ es te red in the soil s and pea t at the bed of the mars h .
T hus, o pen are as can provi de a natural m echanism for filt ering o ut
t h e p o llu ta n ts fr o m d eve lop m e nt a n d oth er huma n ac ti vit i es.
Con se rva ti o n groups and th e c iti es o f Sa n An t o ni o an d Aus tin ,
Texas, have bee n active ly prot ectin g th ese n atura l fi lte rin g fun c-
t i o n s. T h ey are acq uirin g
l a nd s around Edwar d 's
aquife r , a source of d r inkin g
water for nlilli on s o f r es id en ts.
L a nd m a n age m e n t t ec h -
niques ca n also protect sou rce
wa t e r. Strip s o f vegeta ti o n
a lo n g st r ea m s a n d aro un d
r eservoirs provi d e im port ant
buffe r s . T h ese buffer zon es
decrease t he am ount of po ll u-
t io n enteri n g t h e water sys-
te m . Tree a nd s h rub roots
h o ld the ba nk in pl ace, p re -
ve n ting eros io n an d its r es ul t-
PRACTICE TIP:
For more information on land man -
agement technique s t o protect
water resources, see the forthcom -
ing EPA publication Protecting
W a ter R eso urc e s with Smart
Growth: 100 Policie s a t http://
www . e pa. g ov/s m artg rowth/
publ icat ion s.htm .
Stream buffers are a proven strategy
for safeguarding water resources.
Ill GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
PRACTICE TIP:
The Environmental Law Institute's
Conservation Thresholds for Land
Use Planners provides practical
information on how to include land-
sca pe eco logy principles into the
land-use decision-making process.
See http ://www.elistore.org/
reports_detail.asp?ID=l0839 for
more information.
ing sedimentation and turbidity. Detritus and grasses s low the
flow of runoff, giving the sediment time to settle and water time
to percolate, filter t h rough the soil, and recharge underlying
grom1dwater. By identifying and preserving these critical eco logi-
cal areas, communities are taking active steps to preserve and
enhance their water quality and supp ly.
3·
Use an array of financing techniques to preserve open space.
A stable source of state government funding is the foundation of
an effective land conservation program.13 State funds can help
make long-term conservation goals clear and provide valuable
leveraging funds for loca l governments . For more than 30 years,
New Jersey's land acquisition program, Green Acres, has provided
grants and loans to loca l governments and nonprofits.
In 2003, the state announced that it would focus Green Acres
conservation efforts on increasing grant and loan funding for
recreational lands and parks in cities and older, densely developed
suburban communiti es, a nd that it would provide greater state
and local funding all ocations focused on open spaces that protect
water resources and critica l wildlife h abitat. In add iti on, New
Jersey enacted more stri n gent measures to protect the origi n al
conservation purpose of al l Green Acres lands.14
Local governments across Te w J e rs ey have been able to leverage
various sources of money using Green Acres funding. In 2001,
West Windsor Township, a community in west-centra l New
Jersey, was ab le to blend loca l sources of funding and Green Acre
monies with a low-interest l oan for the New Jersey
Environmenta l Infrastructure Trust, which is dedicated to pre-
serving New Jersey's water supply. This transaction marked the
first time that trust funds have been used to help finance open-
space acquisiti on.15 The trust has traditionally been used to fund
engineered solutions to water quality and supply issues such as
stormwater retention.16
4·
Establish priority-setting criteria for open space acquisition.
Since 1998, nearly $20 billion ha s been approved for open-space
preservation in local and state referendums.17 In many cases , how-
ever, commm1ities are passing these bond referendums and other
financial instruments as a reactive measure to help preserve the "last
wetland" or the "last conununity fa rm ." While a reactive preserva-
tion strategy can preserve critica l land s, it often does so in a scatter-
sh ot way. Small, disconnected fragments of conserved land have less
ecological value as wildJjfe habitat, are less accessible to the public,
and have reduced value in directing growth than larger parcels con -
nected by a green infrasu-ucture of corridors . Communities can get
better bang for their buck by being strategic about wruch land s they
acqwre-especiall y tliose communities witli linuted funding.
To h e lp ensure that conservation efforts proactively en h ance
green infrastructure, communities can estab li sh priority-setting
criteria. Once a commu nity has estab li shed an in ve ntory of their
regional resources and conservation goa ls, a prioritization scheme
can help preserve land in a cost-effective way. It can be tailored to
protect endangered wildlife and nativ e habitats, as well as to pre-
serve more elusive attributes, such as a sense of place.
Prioritization systems can range from the simple to the complex
but are used to best effect when connected to a regional conserva -
tion plan. Maryland has combined its land acquisition programs
and green infrastructure assessment to ensure that public funds
are being expended on the most ecologically significant lands.
Using geographic information systems and principles of la nd-
scape eco logy, Maryland developed a map o f existi n g and poten-
tial "hubs" and "corridors" to protect breeding h ab itat and routes
for anim al a nd plant migration.18
By itself, this green infrastructure assessment represents a good
prioritization strategy for both loca l and state land conservation
efforts. However, Maryland t ook it a step further by prioritizing
hubs and corridors according to their eco logica l importance and
their potential risk of loss to development. Hubs were ranked
from best to worst according to a number of p a rameters, includ-
ing proportion of natural cover, number of stream sources a nd
junctions, and road density.19 Corrid ors were ranked simi larly, fo l-
low in g criteria su ch as the eco logica l ranking of th e connected
hubs (as defined in the initial process), corridor len gth, and land
cover surrounding the corridor.20 Using feedback from biologists
and natural resource managers, the rankings were further refined
to produce a final score of "ecologica l importance." These figures
were also considered with a separate ranking for risk of develop-
ment. All hub s and corrid ors o f statewide signifi cance are consid -
ered ecologically important, but the relative rankings ca n be u se -
ful in prioritizing co nservatio n efforts.2 1
5 ·
Incorporate land conservation into transportation planning.
The expansio n of the nati o n 's road network h as provided many
economic benefits, su ch as enhanced access to markets, increased
tourism, and re duc ed costs o f many goods. However, roads ha ve
eco logica l impacts as wel l. T h ese impacts include anima l mortal-
ity from construction and co lli s ions, a lteration of surrou ndin g
habitat, spread of exo ti c plants and animals, and increased hum an
us e.22 To ensure that com muniti es are able to maximize th e bene-
PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRlTICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS II
fits and minimize the costs of transportation, land conservation
shou ld be incorporated into the transportation planning process.
Often , long-range land-use planning is not co nducted until trans-
portation systems have already been expanded or put into place.
This sn·ategy can have negative effects on the eco logy and charac-
ter of a commw1ity. In 200 1, a unique partnership in McHenry
County, Illi11ois, among loca l, state, and federal agenc ies worked to
overcome these typical planning-process shortcomings. T he goa l
of the partnership was to create an intergovernmental comprehen-
sive transportatio n and land -u se plan that accommodated develop-
ment while preserving the integrity of the eco logically significant
Kishawaukee River Watershed. The plan, funded by the Federal
Highway Admin istrati o n 's Transportation ru1d Community System
Preservation (TCSP) grant program, developed the n·ansportation
plan for the Route 47/Kishawaukee River Corridor after a conser-
vatio n-focused land-u se pl an was developed.23
A key part of the ma ster plan was the development of growth
models and sustainabi li ty indicators, whi ch were based on commu-
nity and technical input from surveys, meetings, and wo rksh ops.
T h e models created scena ri os depicting what la nd use in the
Kishawaukee River Corridor currently looked like, what it would
look like if it is built accord in g to existi n g zo nin g codes, and what
it cou ld look like if con servation-based measures were adopted.
T he sustai n ab ili ty indicators were designed to measure wh ether
the river corridor is being developed accord ing to community-
approved conservation, transportation, and growth goa ls. Some of
tl1e indicators were developed to address air-qua li ty and li ght pol-
luti on questions, such as "How many nights in summer can yo u
see the Milky Way?" Another indicator was based on the "nwnber
of su ccessfu ll y breeding pairs of Sandhill Cranes," which co n -
tribute to the overa ll health of the corri dor ecosystem. Otl1er indi-
m GETTINGTOSMARTGROWTHl l
cators o f th e ecosys t em 's h ea lth re lat e to th e number of amphib-
ian s, th e area wa t er qu a li ty, and th e am ount o f qu ali ty ha bitat.
6.
Take advantage of nature's ecoservices.
Na tu re provid es many imp ortant services, r an gin g fr o m wa t er fil-
tra ti o n to ca r bo n se qu estra tion to pl ant po llin a tion. Yet, t h ese
essentia l pu blic services ar e often underva lued in po li cy m aking in
p art beca use th ey do n o t h ave acce pted m on et ar y cos ts and ben e-
fit s associat ed with th em . Putting a va lu e o n ecoservices ca n be a n
effec ti ve way t o e n cou rage ope n -sp ace preservatio n and e nviro n-
m ental stewardship in a marke t-base d econ o my.24
O n e innovative at tempt t o t ake advantage of th e val ue of n atu ra l
p rocesses h e lp e d prese rve o n e o f th e lar ges t we tl and co mpl exes
o n t h e East Coast . In 2002, Al legh e n y E n e r gy so ld ro u g hl y
12,000 acres o f land in th e Ca n aa n Va ll ey to th e U.S. F ish and
Wildlife Se rvi ce for $16 milli on-a cos t in lin e with pas t sa les fo r
co mparab le prope rti es .25 H owever, Al legh e ny E ner gy was a bl e t o
report to tl1 e IRS th at th e ma rket va lu e of tl1 e p ro perty was wo rtl1
$32 milli on by incorp ora tin g th e land 's "ecological asse ts ." T hi s
all ows th e en er gy compan y to cl aim a ch aritabl e contributio n o f
aro w1d $16 milli o n , po t enti all y savin g th em seve r al milli o n dol-
lars in taxes-a powerful in ce nti ve to di spose of th e land fo r co n -
serva ti on purposes .
Al legh eny Ener gy hired Green Ves t , an envi ron ment al pl anni ng
fi r m, t o sum up th e Can aa n Va ll ey p ro p erty's eco -asse ts, whi ch
includ ed th e p ro p e r ty's va lu e as a miti ga ti on ba nk, po t e ntial t o
se ques t er carbon (i.e., "st ore" ca r bo n e mi ssio ns in the en viron -
ment), an d va lu e as public o pen space. T h e C lean Wa ter Ac t and
oth e r e nviro nme ntal st atutes r e quire co mp a ni es o r individuals
that des troy we tl and s or h a bitat in on e ar ea t o r estor e and main-
t ain th e m else wh er e . In res po n se, miti ga ti on b anks h ave b ee n
deve loped to all ow deve lo pers to de pos it and se ll land ri gh ts to
m ee t tl1 e regu lat ory re quire m ents . Using indu stry st and ards fo r
miti ga ti on b anks a nd co mp ara bl es for th e ac qui siti o n o f o p en
spa ce, G r ee n Ves t was abl e t o add $16 milli o n t o th e Ca n aa n
Va ll ey's pro p e rty va lu e . In a dditi o n , p ri o r s tudi es o f car b o n
se ques tration led th e fi rm to include $15 per t on of stor ed ca rb on
into the assess m ent, thus a d d ing $7 milli on t o the p ro p erty's
va lu e.
H u r dl es re m ain b efo re th e d ea l is fin a l. For exa mpl e, th e IRS
n ee ds t o assess the type a nd th e a mount of eco logi ca l asse ts bein g
includ ed i n Al l e ghe n y E n ergy's p ro p e r ty va lu e . T h e fe d e r al
age n cy must a lso de t ermine th e legal au thori ty o f the Can aa n
Va ll ey pro p e r ty to ac t as a miti ga ti on b an k. R ega rdl ess o f th e
I R S's decision in thi s case, oth er e nergy co mp ani es have see n tl1 e
po t ential in eco -asse t va lu ati on s and h ave begilll in ves ti gating the
p otenti a l of eco -a sse t va lu ati o n t o turn ecologicall y si gnificant
land fro m tax bu r dens into pro fit a bl e and fu n ctioning h a bitats .26
In an o ther exa mpl e of u sin g ecoservices t o pro t ec t o p e n space,
Lee Coun ty, F lo rid a, deve lo ped a pl an to prese r ve o pen s pa ce to
bo th p rot ec t aga in st fl oods and provid e drinkin g water. Aft e r a
few r ainy m onths , tl1 e co un ty typ ica ll y n ee ds t o drain st agn ant
wa t er to pro tect the ar ea's r es id en ts fro m fl ooding . H owever, thi s
p ractice pr events th e r epl eni shment o f drinking water sup pli es,
whi ch ultimat ely r es ults in dr inking wa t er short ages during dry
months. T he co un ty is n ow embarki n g on a pl an t o ac quire Aood-
pron e trac t s t o st o r e wa t e r fo r late r u se and t o o pen th e m fo r
pu bli c rec r ea ti o n .27 Aft er th e bu yo ut an d re loca tio n of severa l
fa mili es are co mpl et ed , th e di strict will r es t or e the land's n atura l
ch a rac t eri sti cs and fun ction , whi ch will inhibit fl oodin g, supply
county residents with water in dry months, and provide recre-
ational opportunities.
7·
Support tree preservation through public-private partnerships.
Trees are importa nt components of a community's green infra-
su·ucture. A healthy population of u·ees offers substantia l environ-
mental benefits, including cleaner air and water, quieter streets,
cheaper en ergy bills, cooler temperatures, and wildlife habitat.28
In addition, trees can provide numerous economic advantages,
such as in creased property va lu es and lower air and water remed i-
ation costs. As noted by American Forests, a nonprofit organiza-
tion that promotes enviro nmenta l restoration through tree plant-
ing and urban forestry, "employing tree co nservation and forest
reforestation as a tool to clean up the air could save the country
billions while improving th e quality of life for its citi ze n s."29
Like many other cities across the country, Albuquerque, New
Mexico, is facing tight budget constraints and recently ceased
replacing ag in g trees. In response, the city and a loca l nonprofit,
Tree New Mexico, partnered to create the Albuquerque Tree
Initiative. The mission of the program is to raise funds to replace
trees and plant additiona l trees in parks and other public places.
T he partnership is working to increase the city's funds by secur-
ing corporate a nd private donations and foundati on grants,
encouraging community ownership of parks and public spaces,
and providing volw1teer opportunities for local citizens, groups,
and businesses through tree-planting events.30 (See Principle 4,
Policy 3 for more inform atio n about trees in urban settings.)
As foresny economics change,31 unique opportunities are arising
for governments and corporations to partner with timber compa-
PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS Ill
nies to save forestland, maintain jobs, and promote sustainable
tree-harvesting practices. For examp le, the state of Maryland,
Conservation Fund, Forestland Group LLC, and the G latfe lter
Corporation united in a partnership to protect 25,000 acres of the
state's most eco logica ll y significant areas. The acquisition will join
together 23,000 existing acres of forestland, 26 major river sys-
tems, an d 89 watersheds. Eighty-seven percent of tl1e land wi ll
remain worki ng forests subject to conservation easements that
exti ngui sh development rights, e nsure th at sustainabl e forestry
practices are used, and protect water quality and important
resource features. T h e remaining acres are to be acqu ired by the
Conservation Fund and then transferred to the state of Maryland
o nce public funding is available.32
8 .
Allow land trusts to compete for conservation funds.
Forging partnerships with land trusts can be an exce ll ent strategy
for government agencies to achieve strategic and efficient land
co nservation .33 Relative to govern m e nt agencies, land trusts are
often able to make land deals more cost effectively. Typically non-
profit land trusts h ave more flexibility and discretion in deciding
how to purchase land rights (e.g., fee simp le and conservation
easeme nt). In addition, when compared with governme nt agen-
cies, land trusts may be better ab le to reduce transaction times
and costs . However, land trusts and simi lar groups are often not
e li gib le to receive co ns ervation funds. As development pressures
increase at the fringes of metropolitan areas, so does the price tag
for acquiring critica l environmenta l la nd s. Al lowi n g land trusts to
compete for local, state, and federal funds cou ld allow for a
greater quantity of land to be preserved for less money than if
land trusts were excluded.
PRACTICE TIP:
For examples of urban tree ordi-
nances, visit th e U.S. Forest
Service's South Region Web site at
http ://www. u rbanfo restryso u th. o rg/
ordinances/index .asp.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
Farmers' markets can be a great
strategy for supporting local farms
and creating public awareness of
the benefits of farmland.
South Carolina's new Conservation
Bank a ll ows land trusts to compete
with government agencies for the $8
million to $10 million of avai lable
state funds designated for land
preservation.34 This state-run pro-
gram was designed to ensure that the
"best lands and best projects are
selected."3; To prevent scattershot
preservation, the bank includes se lec-
tion criteria to determine the value of
proposals that are adjacent to large
ecosystems or protected lands and
corridors between protected areas.
Furthermore, to ensure accountabil-
ity, the Conservation Bank is required to submit yearly descrip-
tions of all approved grants and loans to the state, as well as all
acquisitions of land or interests in land obtained with bank funds.
9·
Invest in the rural economy to preserve working lands.
Increasing agricultural land conversion36 and economic hardships
have made it difficult for many communities to preserve farms
and working lands, thus jeopardizing the profitability of farms
and the livelih ood of farm ers on the metropolitan fringe . If farm -
ing is not profitable, development of the land becomes a much
more attractive prospect. Moreover, with the farm population
aging, even profitable farms are sold for development when new
farmers caru1ot be found to purchase the land. Innovative preser-
vation strategies that bolster loca l agric ultural economies and pre-
serve productive lands are important components of a smart
growth plan.
New entrepreneurial agriculture is taking advantage of the grow-
ing market for high-quality, locally grown food and niche prod-
ucts such as organics.37 These often small operations bypass the
now common procedure of growing food products for large mar-
kets with thin profit margins. Instead, they se ll their products
directly to nearby metro areas through farmers' markets, commu-
nity-supported agricu ltu re, and other local programs. The USDA
reports that the number of farmers' markets has increased 79 per-
cent from 1994 to 2002, with over 3,100 operating in 2002.38 The
farmers' market renaissance is a promising strategy to keep farm-
ers in business and to put productive farmland to work by stabi-
lizing an area's economy.
King County, Washington, supports local working lands by
matching a new generation of farmers with landowners wishing
to sel l or lease their property for agriculture.39 The program,
dubbed FarmLink, was cr eated to preserve the area's small but
cherished agricultural economy and remaining rural character.
With 11 connections made since 2000, King County is hoping
tl1at FarmLink will introduce urban residents to working lands
and therefore increase support for farm land preservation. As
Steve Evans, the King County "Farmsbudsman,'' has noted,
FarmLink also helps loca l farms to "protect habitat and water
quality and to produce food that may be safer and that is fresher
and tastes better. "40
IO.
Use innovative permitting approaches to protect critical envi-
ronmental areas.
Long Branch, New Jersey, is using smart growth development to
reinvest in their coasta l community and preserve the eco logical
and economic benefits of th e ir waterfront. This new direction
began when the c ity received flexibility under th e state's coas tal
zone managem ent law to eva lu ate de velopment pl ans on a co m-
preh ensiv e (considerin g severa l lots simu ltaneously) basis rath e r
than through traditional lot-by-lot reviews.41 This flexibility,
known as sector-bas ed permitting, all owed Long Branch to co n-
sid e r habitat protec tion and eco no mic d eve lo pm e nt to ge th e r in
determjning the course of future waterfront proj ec ts.
In 1995 , a developer proposed a city plan for Long Branch focus-
in g on creating severa l developm ent sectors that would contain a
mix of u ses-resid e nti a l, reta il , office-a long wi th a r ed eve loped
pi er.42 This plan was intended to he lp transform the waterfront
into a year-round destination instead of a seaso n al one. Creating
mixed-use and compact development a lon g the coast, th e plan
contended, would also concentrate development onto a sma ll e r
percentage of the waterfront. T h erefore, it would preserve a
gr eater area of coasta l land than would be possible under the cur-
rent plan .
However, New J ersey's coastal man age ment act was a barrier to
creating th e mixed -use plan beca use it preve nte d r egulators from
reviewing pl an s based o n sectors. By using the state's redevelop-
m ent plan, Long Branch and the state pl anrung commission were
able to co nvin ce th e New J ersey Departme nt of Environme ntal
Protection that the dual objectives of preserving th e ecologica l
integrity of the waterfront and spurring economic development
could both be acllieved by the sector-based plan.
PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS m
Wetlands provide many important
services, including filtering water,·
providing habitat, and mitigating
flood damage.
Since th e Long Bran ch succ ess, New J ersey ha s in co rporated sec -
tor-based p ermittin g into its sta te r egu lation s. The st ate h as a lso
received fe d e ral approva l t o make th e p ermitting a part of its
coas tal mana ge m ent pl an as gove rned by the U.S . Coastal Zone
Management Act.
U.S . De partment of Agricu lture, atural Reso urce Inventory,
h ttp://www.nrcs .usda.gov/techn.ical/land/nriO 1 I .
Ibid .
Trust for Public Land and Land T ru st Alliance , Land Vote 2002: A1llericans
Invest in Parks and Op en Space (Boston: Trust for Publi c LaJ1d , 2003)
William Fulton and Linda Holl is, "Open Space Protection: Conservation
Meets Growth Management" (Was hin g to n , D.C.: Brookings Institution
Center o n Urban and Metropolitan P oli cy, 2002).
U.S. D epartment of Agricu lture, Natur al Resource Inventory,
http://www.nrcs .usda .gov/techni ca l/land /nriO 1 /.
Ibid .
Trust for Publi c L and. The Economic Benefits of Parks and Open Space.
(S an Francisco: Trust for Public Land, 1999).
U .S. E nvironm en ta l Protection Agency, Th e Transportation and
Environ1llenta l l11Zpacts of Infill versus Greenfield Develop1llent: A Co11Zparative
Case Study Analysis (Was hingto n , D.C.: E PA, 1999).
http ://www.e pa .gov/s martgrowth/pdflinfill _greenfie ld .pdf
Offi ce o f the Press Secretary, White H ouse. "Presid ent Signs Brown fields
Bill." http://www.wh.i te house.gov/news/releases/2 002 /0 1/20020111-3 .html
10 U.S. EPA. "Savi n g Ope n Space, Revitali zin g Bro wnfield s: St. L o ui s
D eve lopment C o rpo ratio n."
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/st_louis.hm1
11 Community Preservation Coal iti o n, http://www.co mmunitypreserva ti on.
org/P o tentia!Uses2 .h m1.
12 U.S. EPA. "Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey."
http://www.e pa .gov/safewate r/n eeds .h anl
13 C hesa pea ke Bay Commission and Trust fo r Publi c Land. Keeping Ou r
Co1llrnitment. (Richm ond, Va.: Chesapeake Ba y Commission, 2001)
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
14 New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection . "DEP
Commissioner Campbell Announces ew Green Acres Open Space
Priorities." http://www.state.nj.us/dep/newsrel/releases/03 _0 l 07 .han.
15 http://www.westwi ndsornj.org/openspace_manee ly.h an l.
16 SteveJando li, New Jersey Deparanent of Environmenta l Protection,
Green Acres Program. D iscuss ion with the author, June 2003.
17 Land Trust Al li ance and Trust for Public Land (2003).
18 Theodore Weber and J ohn Wolf, "Maryland's Green Infrastructure-
Using Landscape Assessment Tools to Identify a Regional Conservation
Strategy," En v ironmentfll Monitoring and Assessment 63 (2000): 265-277.
19 Ib id.
20 Ibid.
2 1 Ibid.
22 Steve n Trombulak and Christop her Frisse ll , "Review of Eco logica l Effects
of Roads on Terrestrial and Aquatic Communities," Conservation Biolog;j
14, no. l, (2000) 18-30.
23 Kis hawa ukee River Corridor Land Use and Tra nsportation Pla n ,
http://www.cdfinc .com/Rt%2047-Kish %20Report.hai1 .
24 Robert Costanza et al., "The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and
Natural Capital." Nature 387 (1997): 253-260.
25 Katherine E lli son, "Land and Eco-Assets for Sa le."Washington Post,
January 24 2002.
26 Doug La sh ley, President, Green Vest . Discussion with the author, June
2003.
27 Chad Gillis . "Lee County Smart Growth Director: Less Drainage Wou ld
Be Helpful for Parts of County." Naples Daily N ews, J une 15 2002
28 US Forest Service, Forestry Report R8-FR 17,
http:! /www.d n r.sta te. md . us/forests/p ublications/urban .htm I.
29 American Forests, Urban Ecosystem Analysis: Mecklenburg County, North
Carolina , Calculating the Value of Nature (Was hington, D .C.: American
Forests, 2003).
JO Tree New Mexico, http://www.tree n m.com/6PROGRAM.htm #ati.
J I Associated Press, "For Sa le : Prime Timberl and in South," August 5, 2003,
avai lab le at http://www.usforestcap ital.com/index.htm.
J2 C h risti ne Fanni ng, "Innovative Public-Private Pa r aiership Wi ll Conserve
Sens itive W il d li fe Hab itat And Working Forest," T he Conservation Fw1d
(2002), h ttp://www.conservationfund.org/?a rticle=2 6 7 5 & back= true.
33 For more information on how land trusts can be beneficia l paraiers, see
the first ed ition of Getting to Smart Growth: 100 Polices for lrnplernentc1tion.
34 South CaroJjna Legislature, http://www.l pitr.state.sc.us/code/t48c059 .htm
J 5 Domiruc Parker, Cost Effective Strategies for Conserv ing Private Land
(Bozeman, MT: PERC, 2002).
J6 Between 1992 and 1997, an average of more than one nu!Jj on agricu ltura l
acres were deve loped per yea r. Source: U.S. Department of Agricu lture's
National Resource Inventory, http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/tec hn ica l!NRI/
1997 /summary_reportltable8 .hai1 l.
J 7 Patty Cantre ll and Jim Live ly, The New Entrepreneurial Agriculture.
Mjchigan Land Use Institute, 2002
J8 USDA, Farmers' Market Facts. http://www.ams.usda.gov/fa rmersma rkets/
facts .hai1
J9 Patty Cantre ll , "Seattle Gets to Farm land Preservation Through Great
Food," Mjchigan Land Use Institute (2002), http://www.mluj.org/
growth managementlfu ll article.asp?fi leid= 163 7 6.
40 Ibid.
41 Peter Buchsbaum. Long Branch Permit Coordination Case Study (Cambridge,
Mass .: L incoln Institute of Land Policy, 2002).
42 Ibid .
Chapter 7
Strengthen and Direct
Development toward Existing
Communities
M any communities have experienced rapid
expansion at their edges, as growth has
moved to newer developments on the urban
fringe and away from the urban core and first-
ring suburbs . A growin g number of commw1i-
ties are now recognizing the adve r se conse -
quences of abandoning neighborhoods, roads,
schools, sidewalks, water and sewer services,
and other in frastructure in urban centers and
o ld er suburbs, only to rebuild them further out.
Smart growth directs development toward
communities already served by infrastructure.
The goal is to use resources that existing neigh-
borhoods offer and to maintain the value of the
public and private investment already made in
those areas . Often , existing neighborhoods can
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
accommodate much of the growth that communities require
through infill development, brownfield redevelopment, and the
rehabilitation of existing buildings.
However, there are a variety of barriers to development in exist-
ing communities and incentives for developing on the metropoli-
tan edge, making greenfield development comparatively attractive
to developers. Land-use regulations, such as zonjng and subdivi-
sion requirements, often make it easier to build in greenfield
areas. These areas may have little or no land -use regulation and
few residents who may object to the new construction. The cost
of greenfield development is often subsidized by the public sector
through many avenues, including the provision of road, sewer,
and water networks and the use of average-cost pricing, which
can underestimate the true per-unit cost of expansion.
A range of options exists to begin leveling the playing field
between greenfield and infill development and to help direct new
investment dollars to strengthen existing neighborhoods. The fol-
lowing policies are designed to address some of these issues and
to provide ideas and tools to strengthen and direct development
toward existing communities.
I.
Encourage the creation of a business improvement district.
Busine ss improvement districts (BIDs) are frequently used as
tools to encourage revitalization and investment in targeted areas.
Although the state and local regulations required to implement
such an approach vary, most BIDs are designed according to a
common set of principles. Typically, local governments work
closely with commercial property owners to form a special district
within the commuillty. Depending on the scope of the state and
local laws that authorize BIDs, the local government or an inde-
pendent, nonprofit organization then levies a special fee from the
businesses. The proceeds from this levy are used to supplement
existing public services and foster improvements for businesses
within the BID. A board of directors comprising business and
local government leaders generally governs the BID. Recently, in
response to concerns expressed about the closed governance of
some BIDs, BID charters have been drafted to ensure a transpar-
ent community involvement process. Usually, BID activities
include some form of maintenance or beautification, security
improvements, and marketing of the district. Nonetheless, the
BID's basic purpose is to enhance or revitalize the district and to
foster additional business activity.
In 1996, approximately 15 ,000 BIDs existed throughout the U.S.1
Some of the better-known examples include the Times Square
BID in New York City2 and the Golden Triangle and the
Downtown DC BIDs in Washington, D.C.3 In these districts,
industrial and commercial interests joined city officials to foster
extensive reinvestment in their respective areas.
The usefulness of the BID model is not confined to large urban
areas. There is already an existing familiarity with this tool in
many small towns. BIDs continue to emerge in a wide range of
communities, from mid-sized cities like downtown Milwaukee to
smaller communities like Monterey Park, California; Norfolk,
Virgirua; and Yonkers, New York.4
2 .
Use priority funding areas to direct development toward
existing communities.
Where state and local officials allocate public funds can be as
important as how they allocate those funds. Because private
development relies on the public sector to supply infrastructure
and transportation to support new developments, public funds
can be a powerful tool in guiding and directing new deve lopment
into existing communiti es. To fully h arness this latent potential,
so m e states a nd c iti es are developing priority funding areas
(PFAs) to effic iently target public investments.
The PFA approach is surprisingly simple . A governmenta l entity
designates a geographic area as a "priority area" for receipt of
infrastructure funding. This acts as an incentive to attract and
retain market capital. While development is all owed o utsid e of
the PFAs, public resources do not subs idi ze it. This system has
severa l advantages: Loca liti es consid er and prioritize areas for
future development. These priorities se nd clear signa ls to the
market as to where development will be supported, adding pre-
dictability to the development process. Taxpayers benefit from
more su·ategic use of public funds, wruc h can increase r eturn o n
in vestment and/or reduce costs.
Both state and loca l governments can implement PFAs. In 1997,
Maryland passed the Smart Growth Priority Fw1ding Areas Act.5
Cities like Austin, Texas, and Sacramento, Ca li fornia, have a lso
begw1 to impl e ment variatio ns of the PFA model to direct devel-
opment into existing communities. Under the Maryland la w, loca l
officials designate areas where they want state investment to sup-
port future growth. T hereafter, the specifi ed areas receive priority
for most of the state's funding programs, including money for
transportation, water and sewer systems, and economic develop-
ment. The legislation establishes clear criteri a for designation of
areas and distribution of public resources, and requires state plan-
ners to maintain a current priority area map for the state.
To ensure success, institutions that distribute public infrastructure
resources, like water and sewer or transportation funds, must
coordi nate their actions and focus resources to ensure that PFAs
STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPME NT TOWARD EX ISTING COMMUNIT IES m
receive priority for all specified resources. Without either coordi-
nation or longevity, a PFA will be unlikely to attract significant
private-sector inveso11ent in tl1e designated areas.
3·
Offer home equity assurance programs.
Home equity assurance programs (HEAPs) have been used suc-
cessfully in several communities to curb the tide of middle-class
flight, restore homeowner confidence in the lo ca l h ousing market,
and revitalize transitiona l communities by both retaining home-
owners and attracting new residents and businesses. A HEAP is a
tool communiti es can use to reassure h omeowners that th e ir
biggest asset-the ir home-will not lose value due to changing
demographi cs, revitalization efforts, infill deve lopment, or con-
struction of transportation infrastrucUlfe.
All HEAPs examined in a report by Liz Hersh for 10,000 F ri ends
of Pennsylvania in 2001 were either administered as government
programs or run by n onprofit community organizations.6 This
s h ort report is a valuab le resource for local governments and
oth er orga ni zations interested in learning more about existing
HEAPs and options for h ow one might be structured. The report
concludes that Home Equity Assurance appears to be most effec-
tive in relatively stab le communiti es th at are facing transition and
wh ere homeowners are ilie majority.
In a HEAP, the administerin g entity designates areas that are
either at risk of decline or targeted for additional development.
Within those areas, existing residential properties are insured
agai n st devaluation. T h e term of the insurance is limited to a rea-
sonable time period (typically five years) to allow ch anges or n ew
developments to fully integrate into the fabric of the n e ighbor-
h ood. A HEAP ca n be financed with a variety of mechanisms,
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH I I
Developers in downtown
Washington, D.C. are turning an old
office tower into Terrell Place, a
new mixed-use development.
including bonds, gen eral revenue, special
property-tax levies, or even a partnership
with the priva te sec tor.
The first HEAP began in 1977 in O a k
Park, Illinois, an old er, inner-ring suburb
outside Chicago, in response to concerns
about changes in the demographics of the
community (many re s id e nts thou g ht
increasing density would hurt their prop-
erty va lu es). Ca ll ed the Home Equity
Assurance Prog r a m, it relied on funds
generated from a small property-tax levy
on residential va lu es to insure against
devaluation caused by new development.
Programs in Illinois are funded through a property tax levy that is
assessed of all homeowners in the service area. The viability of a
property tax levy as a funding base for HEAPs depends large ly on
whether the governing entity has the authority and will to tax.
The range in rates in Illinois is from 0.08 to 0.12 percent. In par-
ticipatin g areas, a majority of res idents voted for the program by
referendum.7 T h e Oak Park program ha s not had to pay on a sin-
gle claim, and the community continues to thrive within the
Chicago metropolitan region.8
HEAPs a lone are not intended, and h ave not been shown, to
r eclaim neighborhoods with multiple p ro blems already experienc-
ing long-term decline. Baltimore 's experience with Patterson Park
sh owed that threats to quality of life were motivating people to
leave the neighborhood, not an anticipated drop in the resal e va lu e
of their homes . The program was not as effective as the founders
hoped.9 However, HEAPs implemented as part of a larger package
of community measures can help retain residents and facilitate
planned changes in the community, such as increasing densities
through infill development or incorporating additional transporta-
tion facilities in or nea r residential neighborhoods .
4·
Establish a land bank authority.
In cities and towns throughout the country, many neighborhoods
suffer th e appearance of blight and decay as abandoned buildings
and vacant properties langui sh. In communities with a large rmm-
ber of vaca nt properties, one key barrier to returning such prop-
erties to productive use is inefficient public foreclosure and dispo -
sition procedures. Despite wide disparity amon g states governing
such procedures, most disposition processes suffer from onerous
time requirements as well as legal constraints that make transfer
of clear title difficult. Io Consequently, many local officia ls leave
li en-burdened properties vacant rather than undertaking the
arduous task of r e turning them to productive use. As a result,
such properties remain abandoned for many years, spreading
blight throughout the commun ity and draining the budgets of
local government.
One way of combating the problems presented by vacant and
abandoned properties is to establish a land bank authority (LEA)
designed to administer and return such properties to productive
use. Depending on the state authorizing legislati on, an LEA can
serve as a clearinghouse for both publicly owned properties and
properties burdened by some form of public lien, including tax
liens and service fee lien s, or by code vio lations. For publicly
owned properties , the public entity possessing title can transfer
ownership to the LEA for a nominal sum, all owing the LEA to
transfer clear title back to interested private developers or indi-
viduals. For burdened properties, the LEA can assume any public
liens and undertake the proceedings necessary to foreclose on the
lien, clear title, and make the property ava ilabl e to the private
market. In eith er instance, the LBA acts as a type of public bro-
ker, identifying avai labl e properties and automatica ll y returning
them to productive use. In addition, the LBA can "bank" proper-
ties after estab lishin g clear title in order to assemb le larger parcels
for future development. LBAs can be structured in a variety of
ways: some are single jurisdiction; others are created by an agree-
ment between a city and county.
Several cities-including Atlanta, Georgia; Cleveland, Ohio; and
Flint, Michigan-have established variations of the LBA model.
Atlanta, in conjunction witl1 surroundin g Fulton County, estab-
lished the Fulton County/City of Atlanta Land Bank Autliority
(also known as the Atlanta LBA) to inventory and dispose of
properties in tax arrears throughout the region. As part of its mis-
sion, the Atlanta LBA maintaim a current inventory of all proper-
ties in tax arrears throughout the region and provides current
information to interested public and private parties. In addition ,
with passage of specia l enab lin g legislation, the Atlanta LBA now
employs a specia l judicial proceeding to clear title to li en-bur-
dened properties. Through tl1is proceeding, it assures succeeding
titleholders that proper notice and due-process procedures have
been employed to protect them against subseque nt ch al lenges.
The Atlanta LBA can provide such assurance while simu ltane-
ously expediting the entire process, thus producing less risk and
cost for potential community developers.11
5·
Create a development finance insurance program.
Older communities often initiate revitalization efforts through a
series of catalyst projects, including major infrastructure pro-
STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES II
grams or commercial site development. The purpose
of these projects is to spur community development
by upgrading the physical environment.
Unfortunately, su ch ventures typically involve expen-
sive development projects financed la rgely by the
community itself. Moreover, such projects can fail to
create the kind of revitalization origina ll y envisioned
because they do littl e to build trust between the com-
munity and tl1e private lenders who possess sought-
after capita l funds.
For most lenders, all aspects of development can be
reduced to tl1 e ratio of risk to return. Consequently,
officia ls seeking private capital investment in their
communiti es must target their efforts, at least in part,
to reducing the risks associated with development. A
development finance insurance (DFI) program is one
way to address tl1e risk-return ratio witl1out sacrifi c-
ing extravagant amow1ts of public resources.
A DFI program wou ld operate on the same funda-
mental principles that form the basis of any system of
risk insurance. A local government would estab li sh a
source of capita l and use it to insure private lenders
aga in st the risk of loss associated with construction
financing for projects designated as catalysts for com-
munity development. The key to tlie program is that
a community's DFI fund is not directly expended on
tl1e project itself. Rather, the local government works
in partnership with designated private lenders and
developers to form a financing package that comprises
private capital to pay for tlie cost of project develop-
ment. The local government uses the DFI fund as a
PRACTICE TIP :
When planning for the reform of state or local
property disposition procedures, incorporate at
least the fol lowing stakeholders in the process :
• Representative s of lo cal tax-collection entities
have experience with the system of foreclosure
on public liens; thus, they are a valuable source
of information on what requires change and
what currently works.
• Local government attorneys have information
about existing statutory authority and current
constitutional requirements for disposition pro-
ceedings.
• Representatives of local community-develop-
ment entities will make the case for reform
because of vacant property impacts.
• Representatives of local title insurance compa-
nies understand what measure of certainty title
insurance companies will require of local dispo-
sition proceedings before issuing insurance on
the titles of properties disposed therein.
Source: Frank S. Alexander, Renewing Public Assets for
Community Development. A Report for the Local
Initiatives Support Corporation (New York: USC,
October 1, 2000).
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
form of es crow th at lend er s may draw upon in th e eve nt o f default
on a pri va t e con structi o n loan .
A D F I progr am o ffe rs a num ber of import ant be n e fi ts. T he m ost
obviou s adva ntage t o su ch program s is th at they con se r ve sca rce
public fund s whil e a ll o win g communiti es t o fa cilitate important
d eve lo pm e nt projec t s. T hu s, wh er e pr ivate lenders may balk a t
mi xe d -u se develo pme nt in o lder co mmunities b eca use of co n-
ce rns ge n era t ed fro m co nve nti o n al lendin g p rac ti ces, a D F I ca n
brid ge th e ga p be twee n ri sk and r eturn .
As pu b li c o ffi cials deve lo p a fin an cia l st ake in re du cin g the ri sks
assoc iat e d with p roject d eve lo pment, th ey becom e be t te r at co m -
municatin g with pri va t e inter es ts wh o sh ar e their con ce rn s. T hese
progr ams a r e intende d t o m o ti va t e inves tment; h owever , by th eir
n ature, th ey t end to in vo lve m o r e pl aye r s and r es ult in a m o r e
co mpli ca t e d d ea l structure usin g muJtipl e sources o f equi ty, d e bt,
et c . Car e must be taken to en sure th at the progr a m d oes n o t ulti-
mately r es ult in a lo n ge r (a nd m o r e cos tl y) d eve lo pment tim e -
fr am e, n ega tin g som e o f its advantages.
A co mmuni ty D F I fu nd wo ul d se r ve as "ga p fi ll er" fo r p rojec t s
wh er e th e va lu e of th e fin an ce d prin cip al is g r ea t er th an the va lu e
of the inco mplete project site. In addition , city offici a ls should
incorpo rat e ri sk-re du cti on po li cies into a D F I p rogram t o mini -
mi ze ri sk th ro u gh d evelo per and p rojec t se lecti o n . D F I progr ams
sh o uld in corp o r ate a wid e va ri ety o f st ake ho ld er s in th e process,
including lende r s and p ri va t e develo pers, r e presentati ves o f n on -
profit and community interests, and r e prese ntati ves o f th e loca l
co mme rc ia l se cto r. By ga th e ring in pu t fr o m th ese g r ou ps, city
officia ls will he lp e n s ure th at th e D FI program fos t e r s proj ec ts
ben e fi cial t o the entire co mmuni ty with broad-base d support.
6 .
Develop asset-driven market analysis to encourage commer-
cial and retail investment in underserved communities.
Many co mmunities, parti cul arl y tho se th at ha ve exp eri en ce d po p-
ul a tion declines, h ave also los t co mmer cial and r etail in ves tment,
leavin g ma rkets un de rser ve d . T hi s is large ly th e res ult o f con ve n-
tion al m arke t an alyses th a t co n cl ude th at o lder communiti es wi th
hi gh er co n ce n tra ti on s o f m o d er a t e-to low-inco m e h o use h old s
lack the buyin g p owe r t o support st o r es and businesses. T h ese
ana lyses o ft e n fa il to t ake th e po pulati o n d ensity o f urban ar eas
into acco unt, foc u sin g in st ea d o n ave r age ho use h old in co me . In
fac t , re tail is cur r e ntl y ove rbuilt in m any s uburban ar eas around
the count1y and urban ce nte rs ar e an impo rtant untapped market.
T h e urba n m arke t is und e r served for everyd ay sh o ppin g n ee d s
and re prese nts an o pp o rtuni ty fo r r eta il er s. Nati on al r e t ail er s ar e
beginnin g t o m ake thi s rea li za ti o n and ac t acco rdingly.
Michae l P orter of the Harva rd Business Sch ool notes that urban
po pul ati o ns d o n o t al ways h ave a high per -ca pita inco me, but they
r e prese nt e no rm ou s n et b uyi n g po we r. In a 1995 Harvard Business
R eview ar ticl e, P ort e r exa min e d th e ove rl ooked asse t s o f o ld er,
centrall y loc ate d communities: strategic loca ti o n , local d emand ,
integ rati o n within th e r egi o n a l clust e r , and av ail a bl e huma n
r esources .12 Acco rdin g t o P o rte r , these asse t s, wh en pro p e rl y
p ackage d , ar e key t o educa tin g co mm e rcial a nd r e t ai l inte r es ts on
tl1 e lat ent o pp o rtuniti es o f ce ntra l citi es and o ld er-rin g suburban
market s.13 H e no t es that th e centra l locati o n o f many o ld er co m-
muniti es witl1in th e m e u-o po litan r egio n a ffo rd s uniqu e ad va n-
tages fo r co mmercial inte r ests , su ch as access to skill ed labo r m ar-
k e t s. P ro p e rl y p ac ka ge d a nd m arke t e d , su c h in fo rma ti o n ca n
a ttract in ves tment and ass ist community lead er s in ove r co ming
obstacl es to new busin ess d eve lo pment.
By analyzi ng the Austi n community in the C hi cago metropolitan
r egion , for exa mpl e, a r esearch t ea m at th e Brookings Instituti o n
demonstrated that local resid e nts generated nearly $98.2 million
in grocery purchases outside th e community because of the lack
of avai lab le grocery retailers .14 This kind of information is va lu -
ab le in attracting additional grocery stores, a strong stabili zing
presence for communiti es everyw here.
7·
Encourage infill by adopting innovative stormwater
regulations and practices.
Deve lopment activities, both during construction and after a proj-
ec t has been built, are cited as factors that worsen the effects of
stormwater runoff.'; Sediment from construction sites and debris
and chemica ls are ca rried to streams during h eavy rainfalls. As
more land in a waters hed is bui lt on, less rainfa ll soaks into the
ground, increasing the amount of runoff that eventually makes its
way to receiving waters.
While loca liti es sti ll in vest in storm drains, stormwater sewer sys-
tems, and large conta inm ent areas, many also require d evelop ers
to take measures with their projects to contro l stor m water.
Stormwater retention ponds and infiltratio n areas are common
practices that are written into loca l regulations. However, devel-
opers in urban areas are finding that requirements stipulating that
stormwater be managed on the project site are a barrier to rede-
ve lopment and construction of infill and more compact projects.
Land for onsite stormwater management is often not avai lab le or
i s prohibitively expens ive . In addition, codes that limit the
amount of impervious surface th at can be built on a site discour-
age both development in urban areas and compact development.
Inflexible stormwater regulations applied in urban areas can h ave
STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMU NITIE S Ill
the unintended effect of worsening water quality by forcing
development to und evelo ped fringe ar eas.
Fortunately, there ar e inn ovative options that foster red evelop-
m e nt and contro l s tormwa t er. In 2002, the city of San Diego
adopted a policy of a llowing infill redevelopers to share in the
cost of stormwater abatement in li eu of o nsite mitigation. Instead
of requiring trea tm ent of each individual proj ec t , the Standard
Urban Stormwater Mitigation Plan a ll ows d eve lopers to con-
tribute to stormwater mitigation that serves the entire drainage
basin. Engin eers es timate that individual development proj ec ts
ca n achieve savi ngs of up to $40,000 by participatin g in a shared
stormwater control program.16 The Low Impact Development
Cent er, a nonprofit organization dedicated to protecting water
reso urces through site -design techniqu es, is sponsoring research
on low-impact development techniqu es that require less space.17
On e techniqu e is th e use of soil amendments that a ll ow compact
landscaping to absorb and hold stormwater without causing
fl ooding or damage to adjacent buildings . 18
Local jurisdictions are learning about different ways to satisfy
stormwater and drainage issues associated with d evelopment and
are exp loring offsite mitigation possibilities. The possibility of
offs ite mitigation makes sma ll er infill projects more feasible and
provides an opportunity to locate mitigation facilities in a way
that can serve multiple projects .19 In return for offsite mitigation ,
jurisdictions cou ld increase allowab le densities in downtown and
designated areas. In such a case, the municipality would become
accountab le for maintaining water quality in that particular basin.
PRACTICE TIP:
In Minneapolis, a community mar-
ket analysis was included as part of
the 46th & Hiawatha Station Area
Master Plan. The plan and the mar-
ket analysis focus on land uses,
urban design, public infrastructure,
and amenities located within a half-
mi le of a light rail station, and a
consultant was hired to evaluate the
market support for various land
uses within a half-mile radius of the
planned 46th Street Light Rail
Transit. Thi s analysis identifies mar-
ket opportunities for various land
uses over time. Market conclusions
and implementation cons iderations
are summarize d and addressed.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
8.
Increase transit-oriented development by adding infill stations
on existing transit lines and retrofitting existing stations.
Communities often overlook the potential of existing transit facil-
ities to encourage additional development. Properly located and
designed transit stations can boost surrounding property values
and encourage additional residential, retail, and commercial
development. 20 Adding or upgrading stations is a cost-effective
way to encourage transit-oriented development. Because the tran-
sit line already exists, the capital-intensive process of developing a
new system can be bypassed. Adding or improving stations gar-
ners many of the same benefits for the community that a new
transit system produces.
Officials in Washington, D.C., have already begun to capitalize
on the city's extensive Metro rail system to encourage additional
development around many of the city's stations. Along the sys-
tem's Red Line, officials are developing an additional Metro sta-
tion at New York Avenue in the heart of downtown. The new sta-
tion will connect local residents with downtown amenities and
facilitate the growth of additional stores and businesses through-
out the surrounding neighborhoods.
The promise of a new station has already begun to attract capital
invesonent in the surrounding neighborhoods, boosting property
values and encouraging new residential growth. A group of pri-
vate property owners agreed to collectively pay $2 5 million
(through a 30-year special property tax assessment) to build the
station, and they are also donating the land to the Washington
Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). This money was
supplemented with $31 million in federal funds and $34 million
in city contributions. Public invesonent in the area includes $100
million in federal funds for the new national headquarters of the
U.S. Bureau of Alcoho l, Tobacco, Firearms and Exp losives on
vacant city-owned land adjacent to the Metro station. Officials
believe that the goals to generate one billion dolla rs of public-pri-
vate investment and 5,000 jobs by the time the Metro station
opens in late 2004 will easily be surpassed. All of these consider-
able benefits will be achieved using an existing transit line.2 1
9·
Develop a revolving loan fund to support local independent
businesses.
Local independent businesses often suffer when the surrounding
community faces decline-or enjoys revitalization. During
decline, local businesses lose market share to large national chains
that sprout up in the newer fringes of the metropolitan area.
During revitalization, local businesses can be displaced when
national chains move in. Consequently, local independent busi-
nesses represent the most vulnerable link in an existing comnm-
nity's chain of commerce. To prevent the loss of such vital assets,
community leaders can employ strategies to protect local busi-
nesses. One such strategy is use of a revolving loan fund (RLF) to
protect and support local independent businesses.
An RLF is a capital fund designed to serve as a lender of last
resort in high-risk transactions. The fund is injtially capitalized
out of a municipal/local government budget. Fund administrators
us e th e RLF to provide financi11g to targeted commw1ity mem-
bers at below-market interest rates and with tailored underwrit-
ing. The returns generated by payments plus interest on the ini -
tial loans "revolve" back into the lending pool for subsequent
loans. Consequently, a properly managed RLF can continue to
service a targeted population for a number of years without
requiring additional capital from the community.
RLFs often e ntail high-risk lending at intentionally low interest
rates. Fund managers can mitigate risk of default by devoting
resources up front to lea rnin g about the needs and limitatio n s of
the target population. Using this in fo rmatio n , officia ls can impl e-
ment underwriting practices sp ecifica ll y tailored to the needs of
the target population, reducing risk o f default as well as the cost
associated w ith the transaction itself. With proper research and
planning, the RLF can supp ly a vast amount of capita l to the
community without proving an undue strain o n loca l budgets.
IO .
Designate a vacant-properties coordinator to use code
enforcement, provide incentives, and develop partnerships to
minimize and abate vacant properties.
One way to address issues associated with abandoned properties
an d vaca nt land without passing n ew la ws or ord in a n ces is to
reorganize existing staff and revamp codes in a holistic fashion .
One city that successfully used this approach is San Diego.22 In
1993, faced with a growin g number of abandoned h omes and
boarded bu ildin gs, San Diego, under the leaders hip of the city
manager, establi shed a task force to design an action plan for
addressing vaca nt properties. R epresentatives from lending insti-
tutions, title in surance companies, community groups, and real
estate and apartment owne r associations joined the task force,
a long with city staff from code compli ance, the city attorney's
office, housing, economic development, and the planning depart-
ments. The task force held severa l community meetings before
making a set of recommendations to tl1e city counci l's public serv-
ices a nd safety committee. T h e recommendations included
appointing the first vacant-properties coordinator to spearh ead
the city's efforts.
STRENGTHEN AND DI RECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES II
From April 1995 throu gh June 199 7, the coordinator inventoried
more than 400 vacant and boarded single-family, multifamily, and
commercia l structures and, during that sa m e period, worked with
property owners and community groups to successfu ll y rehabili-
tate more than half of th ose structures. T h e coordinator provided
own ers with a se lf-help guide, information on matching rehabili-
tation grants, real estate and contractor
guidance, referrals to the county public
admini strator for title and probate assis -
tance, and vo lunteer demolition resources.
T he coord in ator also created a database to
track in formation, including property c har-
acteristics, ownership information, financial
encumbrances, tax delinquencies, and length
of time in the city's inventory. She built
stron g re lationships across essentia l c ity
departments, especia ll y with the city attor-
ney's code enforcement unit. As a result of
these close partnerships, the city revised its
vaca nt properties abatement ordinance to
require owners of vacant properties to sub-
mit a statement of intent and a rehabilitation
plan within 30 days of boarding up any
abandoned building.
San Diego became one of the first cities in
Ca li fornia to consolid ate its bui ldin g, h ous -
in g, and zoning inspectors into a neighbor-
hood code compli ance department (NCCD).
Because of its h o li stic management struc-
ture, NCCD was then reassigned to the
San Diego Police Department Business
Center, tlrns integrating vacant properties
Through persistent application of enforcement procedures,
San Diego's vacant properties coordinator succeeded in per-
suading recalcitrant property owners to bring their proper-
ties up to code.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
abate ment with co mmunity-ori ented policing strategies . I n
F e bruary 2001 , S a n Di ego r ece i ve d a Cal i fornia Cod e
E nforce m e nt In ce nti ve G rant of $39 5,000 from the C a lifornia
D e partment o f H o u sing and Community D eve lo pment t o sup-
port these efforts .
O vera ll , th e appointment of a va cant-prope rti es coordinator t o
faci li t a t e t h e abate m ent and r e ha b ilita tio n o f vac ant properti es
r e presents a rel a ti vel y e asy st e p th a t muni cip a liti es ca n t a ke t o
strategically address this problem .
Susa n F. Baer, Th e Cnse of a Milwau kee Business Impro vem ent District: Politics
and l nstitMiona l Arrangenumts. Pre pared on behalf o f th e 2001 An nu al
Meeting of th e Am eri can P o liti ca l Scien ce Assoc iati o n , Augus t 2001.
For mo re informati on on th e Times Square BID , see
h ttp://www.tim ess qu are bid.o rg/.
For mo re in fo rm ati on o n th e Go lden Tri angle BIDs, see
h ttp://www.gt bi d.co m/.
For mo re informati o n on BID programs, see
htt p ://www .yonkerseconde v.c o m/busin es simprovement.php o r
h ttp://www.downtownn or fo lk .org/b usin ess _imp rove ment_di stri ct .s h tml.
For mo re in fo rm ati o n o n th e Smart Growth Pri o ri ty F undin g Areas Act,
see http://www.mdp .s tate.md .us/fundin gac t.hm1 .
Li z Hersh , Report on H ome Equity Assurance to the Urban Issues Ta sk Force of
10,000 Friends of Pennsylvan ia (Fa ll 200 1),
http://www . I OOOOfri end s.o rg/Web_P ages/Resources/
H o meEquityAs suran ce Re po rtl 0-0 I .doc .
Ibid .
F o r in fo rmati on on other C hi cago-a rea H EAP s, see h ttp://www.
swhomeequity.org/residents .htrn .
See Liz Hersh, Report on H om e Equity Assurance to the Urban Issues Ta sk
Force of 10,000 Fri ends of Pennsylvan ia (Fa ll 2001 ),
htt p :/ /www.I OOOOfri end s.o rg/We b_Pa ges/Reso urces/
H om eEq ui tyAss uran ce Re po rtl 0-0 I .d oc .
10 Se e Fra nk S . Al exand er, Renew ing Public Assets f or Co mmunity Development.
A Report fo r th e L oca l Initiatives Support Coalitio n , Octo ber I , 2000 .
11 For a variety of We b-based resources about recl aimi ng vacant pro perties
and a band oned bu ildin gs, see th e Na ti o nal Vaca n t P ro perti es Ca mp aign at
http://vaca n t pro per ties.o rg/reso urces .h mil .
12 See Mich ae l E. P orter, "The C o mp etitive Advantage o f th e Inner C ity,"
Harvard Business Rev iew , M ay-June 1995 .
13 I b id .
14 s ee Ro bert W eissbo urd, Th e Market Potentia l of Inner-City Neighb orhoods:
Filling th e Infonnation Gap (Was hin gton , D .C.: T he Brooki ngs In sti tutio n,
March I , 1999).
i ; For a di sc uss io n o f th e imp acts o f deve lo pm ent prac ti ces o n wa ter qu ality,
see Coasta l Spra wl: T he Effects of Urban Design on Aqua tic Eco systems in the
Un ited States, by D an a Beac h o f th e So uth Carolin a Coas tal Conservatio n
League fo r th e P ew O cean s Commi ss ion :
http://www.pewocean s.o rg/re ports/water_po ll utio n_s pra wl.pdf.
16 For more detai led in for mation on th e Loca li ze d Equivalent Area Drain age
(LEAD), see http ://www.sannet.gov/stormwater/pd f/watershed .pdf.
17 Fo r more in for mati on, see http://www.lowimp ac td evelo pm ent.o rg/.
18 For mo re in fo rm atio n on low-imp ac t deve lo pm ent and uses in urb an
areas, se e http ://www.li d-sto rmwater.n et/.
19 M a upin , Mira nda, and Theresa Wagner, Regional Facili ty vs . On-site
Development Regulations: Incrensing Flexib ility and Effectiv eness in
Development Regulation Implem entation (Sea ttl e, W as h .: E PA, 2003),
http://www.e pa.gov/owow/np s/natl sto rmw ater0 3/22 M aupin .pdf.
20 Fo r links to a vari ety o f re ports supportin g thi s statement, see th e
An1eri can Public Transpo rtation Association's Tra nsit Resource Guide at
http ://www.a pta.co m/rese arch /i n fo /bri efin gs/bri efi ng_l .cfrn .
2 1 O MA, "M t . Ve rn on Squ are-Co nve nti o n Cente r M etro Stati o n ,"
http ://www.no macenter.c o m/MetroMtVern o nSqu are_C on venti onCente r.
h tm .
22 Much of this section is adapted fr om an ICMA case study on San Diego 's
vacant property e fforts, "The Revita li zati o n o f Vac ant Properti es : San
Di ego Case Stud y" by J ose ph Schilling o f ICMA. The case study and
o th e rs on vaca nt property iss ues can be found at http://icma .o rg/
vaca ntpro perti es.
Chapter8
Provide a Variety of
Transportation Choices
A s more communities adopt smart growth
.£"\.prin ciples, the benefits of linking trans-
portation, the workplace, and housing are
becoming clearer. Even though most
Am ericans still use a personal automobil e for
the majority of their trips, inte rest in improving
a ll forms of transportation, including mass
transit, biking, and walking, is on the ris e. In a
2003 poll sponsored by the Amer i can
Automobi l e Associati on (AAA) and the
American Public Transportation Association,
71 percent of 1,032 randomly se le cted U.S.
adu lts stated that it was important t o have both
good roads and viabl e alternatives to driving, 1
including better support for bicycling and walk-
ing.2 In another poll, 81 percent of 1,003 adults
agr eed th at increased public inv estment in pub-
li c transportation would strengthen the econ-
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
omy, create jobs, and reduce traffic congestion and air pollution .
Both polls cited consistent support for investing in a variety of
transportation options.
Local officials, however, must balance the need for better trans-
portation and related facilities in challenging financial environ-
ments. Transportation professionals are looking for creative poli-
cies that make the best use of existing transportation investments
and systems that maximize both transportation and economic
performance. Thjs is where smart growth policies can provide an
array of solutions. For example, many localities have teamed with
transit agencies to adopt special plaiming and zoning districts for
u·ansit stations in order to increase ridersrup and raise revenue.
Transportation officials and localities are also beginning to seek
input from a wider array of community members. Among these
community members, unexpected alliances are forming to sup-
port better transportation and community development. The
Boone County Smart Growth Alliance in Missouri, a partnership
of environmental, commuruty, and rural conservation
groups, grants Smart Growth Awards to recognize
development projects which take into account existing
transportation infrasu·ucture and promote walkable
areas. Spurred by u·ansportation problems, the busi-
ness communities in Atlanta, Georgia; Chicago,
Illinois; and California's Silicon Valley have led the
way for implementing smarter growth. As the policies
in tills chapter suggest, both public-and private-sector
strategies offer opportunities to create a range of
u·ansportation choices.
The T in Boston, Massachusetts.
I.
Create programs and policies that support car sharing.
Car-sharing programs, which allow members to reserve a car
from a fleet of cars for short periods of time, are ideal for people
who need a car infrequently or for families who would not like to
own more than one car. The programs are typically operated by
private companjes, such as Flexcar (www.flexcar.com) and ZipCar
(www.zipcar.com), although some successful programs, such as
San Francisco's City CarShare, have been sponsored in part by
local governments. In areas witl1 a high share of alternative com-
muters, businesses can also sponsor the practice so that employ-
ees who do not drive to work can share a car for lunchtime
errands or emergencies. The Commuter Challenge in the Seattle
area (www.commuterchallenge.org) and Zev-Net in California
(www.zevnet.org) are two programs that provide a fleet of cars for
day use to commuters who do not drive to work. Businesses and
local governments have also benefited from car-sharing programs
by avoiding the costs associated with maintaining a fleet of cars to
make client and service calls.
Car sharing supports smai·t growth by reducing the number of vehi-
cles on the road, even as it offers the advantages of car ownersrup
for people who do not want to own a car. Flexcar estimates that each
shared car replaces single ownersrup of up to six cars, which, by
extension, reduces the amount of parbng needed and therefore
reduces potential development costs (since proviiling parking can
cost up to $10,000 per space).3 Car-sharing programs work best
where there is a rugh density of residents, a variety of transportation
options, and limited parking (e.g ., uruversity campuses).
Car-sharing programs can be encouraged through local policies
that boost their appeal. For example, localities can reduce the
number of parbng spaces required for higher-density residential
projects in exchange for a highly visible, preferred parking space
for a shared car decorated with the car-sharing program's logo.
Local governments can also assign certain public spaces, e ither o n
or off street, for a car-sharing fleet. Regional authorities, such as
metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs), can also recognize
car sharing in their transportation and air-quality programs.
Car-s haring companies note that t hey measure success not by the
number of members, but by h ow frequently the cars are used.
The most successful programs, as found in Boston, Seattle, and
Washington, D.C., are those that have robust residential, busi-
ness, and loca l government use. Since these users tend to need the
cars at different times of the day, the cars are in constant use.
2.
Make sure transportation models and surveys accurately
reflect all modes of transportation.
Smart growth planning relies on forging good connections
between development projects and transportation networks.
Good planning relies on good predictions, and for predictions,
planners turn to survey data, trend ana lys is, and computer mod-
els. Unfortunately, the methods used in trend ana lysis and com-
puter models often on ly estimate au tomobile-re lated outcomes
and design strategies. Thus, trips made o n foot or by bicycle are
underestimated or discounted. As a result, conventional modeling
results tend to overestimate traffic and parking requirements for
smart growth projects. They also t end to underestimate the bene-
fits that can accrue from improvements to the pedestrian, bicycle,
and transit system.
On a larger sca le, transportation models are used to plan regional
transportation projects and to ensure compliance with air-q uality
regulations. As with any form of modeling, a range of assump-
PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION CHOICES II
tions, s uch as 20-year employment forecasts and population sta -
tistics, is used to fill in knowledge gaps. Assumptions used in
transportation/air-quality models are based on typical develop-
ment patterns, such as separated uses, a single mode of trans-
portation (automobi le), and a hierarchy of streets.4 Communiti es
trying to comply with pollution reductions face limited options
tied to the modeling and what it measures, such as carpooling or
vehicle fleet mixes, and often do not consider development pat-
terns that encourage wa lking or biking. Because the transporta-
tion performance of smart growth decisions cannot be credited
under conventional models, local governments have fewer incen-
tives to adopt smart growth policies.
To better determine the transportation performance of smart
growth projects and plans, models need to measure the effects of
transit, wa lkin g, and bicycling on air quality. A set of data is
emerging o n the transportation and environmenta l performance
of transit-oriented development, community design, and support-
in g policies. Many localities would appreciate a system that gives
regulatory credit for the air quality benefits of smart growth, but
are w1sure of how to account for the cumu lati ve performance of
numerous small projects over time. The Clean Air Counts project
in Chicago (http ://www.clean aircounts.org) provides a good
examp le of h ow to account for the air-qua li ty benefits of numer-
ous sma ll actions. In an effort to lower ozon e leve ls, the city spon-
sors a web site that allows commercial painters and homeowners
to enter how many gallons of low-VOC (volatile organic com-
pounds) paints they ha ve used. The city then tabulates the reduc-
tion in voe leve ls compared with estimated leve ls of using con-
ventional, hi g h er-VOC paints. In the same manner, regions cou ld
account for the environmental performance of transit-oriented
development (TOD) compared with the air-qu ality profile of a
PRACTICE TIP:
In July of 2003, Washington, D.C.,
began offering the SmartCommute
mortgage. The SmartCommute
Initiative recognizes that homeown-
ers who do not rely on a car for
transportation have more financial
resources available for housing .
Potenti al homebuyers then can
qualify for a larger mortgage for
housing located near public transit.
"Transportation costs are the sec-
ond large st expense after mortgage
or rent for many households, and
the SmartCommute Initiative is a
great way for people to reduce
those costs and increase their
home-buying power," said Tim
Vogel, general manager of
Flexcar's Washington, D.C., area
operations. Flexcar is offering
reduced membership fees and
hourly rates to homebuyers who
participate in SmartCommute.5
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
similar inte nsity of d e velopm e nt under a conve ntional , non -
transit-ori ented pl a n .
3·
Consult early with emergency responders when developing
smart growth plans.
One c riti ca l compo nent o f a community's tran s po rtati on sys t e m is
e ffec ti ve e m erge ncy r es po n se . In so m e in st an ces, fir e, ambul a nce ,
or poli ce o fficial s h ave ex presse d conce rns with sm art growth
n e ighbo rhood stree t d es igns bec aus e o f c once rn s a bout access.
Sp ec ific all y, th ey a r e wo rri ed th a t narrowe r stree ts, sma ll e r inte r-
se ctio n s, o r sh o rter c urv e radii will m ake turns diffi cult o r will
imped e st agin g activiti es-p arti cularly as the equipment use d ge ts
la r ge r and la r ge r . In som e in s tances, co mmuniti es h ave a ban-
d on e d plans for smart growth road and transportatio n improve -
ments, suc h as multiuse stree t s o r e ng in ee ring t ec hniqu es t o ca lm
traffic , a ft er fir e chi e fs testifi ed against th e plan s ba se d on accessi-
bility con ce rns.
Som e e m e r gen cy -res po nse o ffi cials h ave po inte d out th at , fr o m a
b roa d er co mmuni ty-sa fe ty per spec ti ve, th e wid e r stree ts and turns
actu all y produce m or e safe ty problems than they sol ve , sin ce they
pro mote higher sp ee ds and co n sequently mo re dangerous traffic
ac cidents. Others n o t e that r es id enti al stree t d es ign s, such as cul-
d e-sa cs and limite d access points fo r pri va te co mmuniti es, a lso
im p ede e ffective acce ss .
To achi eve safer street networks, loca l governme nts should con-
sult em e r gen cy r es po nd e r s during the d es ign pha se o f a ro a d
improve m e nt proj ec t instea d o f at th e e nd o f th e process . By
working to gether ah ea d of tim e, lo ca l governments and em er-
gency responders ca n create desi gns that r es ult in sa fer, more liv-
a b le communiti es . For in stan ce, by co nsulting with e m e r gen cy
tea ms o n fire equipment-s taging r e quirements, road design ers
ca n cre ate midbl o ck bulb-o uts that provid e ad e quat e s pa ce for
stagin g, parking ca n be m ove d furth er bac k fr o m cru cial inte rsec-
ti o ns , and sh o uld e rs a nd curbs can be d es igne d fo r e m e r ge n cy
equipm ent use . In so m e co mmuniti es, arguments have been e ffec-
ti vel y r eso lve d by t aking e quipment out for r ea l-life tes ts o r by
driving e mer gency equipm ent th rou gh con es laid out t o simulate
the d es ign o f an inter sec ti on o r stree t .
T h e trend toward lar ge r em e r ge n cy r es po n se ve hicl es may be on e
r eason th at r es po nd er s suppo rt wid er roa ds and turns. H oweve r , a
m ajority o f ca ll s t o man y fir e de partments ar e n o t for fir es, but for
auto mo bil e accid e nts. Smart growth stree t d es igns re duc e the fr e-
quen cy o r severity o f tl1 ese in cid ents and tlms r e li eve so m e o f th e
burd e n s o n e m e r ge n cy r es p o nders . T h e L oca l Gove rnm e nt
Commi ss io n h as d eve lop ed materi als on the n exu s be tw ee n safe r
stree ts and co mmuni ty d es ign , whi ch includ es roa d des ign m eas -
ures , vi su al cu es t o slow tra ffi c such as plantin gs and sign age, and
ameniti es to addres s p edestri an and bicycle safety.6 Thus, wh er e
innovati ve d es ig n s ar e in suffi c ie nt t o m ee t s m a rt-g row th and
e m e r gen cy -res p o n se n eeds, th e so luti o n m ay be to p roc ure a
sm all er tru ck to se rvice sm art growth ar eas . In fa ct , giv en th e co st
sa vin gs associ a t e d with n arrowe r s tree t s and th e p o t e ntial for
r educti o n s in th e fr equency and sev erity o f accid e nts , purch as ing
sma ll er equipment may be a savvy inv es tm e nt.
4·
Change state insurance policies so that pay-as-you-drive insur-
ance can be implemented.
M os t auto m o bil e in suran ce rates ar e d et ermin ed at th e o nse t o f
an annua l po licy and ar e set with out regard to actual mil es driven .
Once th e poli cy is be ing paid , no co nsid e ration is give n t o th e
additi o n al ri s k incurre d with each ad diti on al mil e drive n . Sin ce
in sura n ce co mp an ies reduce r at es fo r dri ve r s wh o a do pt oth er
types o f r isk-r edu cti o n m eas ures, su ch as anti lock brakes, it seems
r eason a bl e th at dri ve rs sh o uld ge t credit for r edu cing ri sk by dri v-
in g fewe r mil es . A pay -as -you-drive p o li cy assign s insuran ce pre -
n1ium s base d dir ec tl y on h o w mu ch a ve hicl e is dri ve n . An in sure r
ca n m e t e r a ca r 's o do met e r t o assess mil eage, o r require that a
poli cy ho ld e r pay an a pp roxi m ate am ount a nd lat e r pay tl1 e differ -
enc e or ge t a r efund if th e actual mileage is les s th an es timated . In
2001 , Texas pa sse d legisla ti o n auth o ri zing pay -as -you -go in sur-
an ce, and seve r al o tl1 er stat es ar e now pil o tin g po li cies.
Barri e r s t o w id e r u se o f p ay-as-you-dri ve insuran ce p o li c ies
includ e reluctan ce by insurer s to change practi ce, con cerns a bout
dri vers' accounta bili ty, a nd impac t s o n dri ve r s in rural a r eas.
Au to m o bil e in suran ce po li cies ar e gove rn ed by st at e rul es; tl1 e re-
for e, changin g st at e in surance po lici es is th e ste p t o es t a bli shin g
p ay -as -you -dri ve alternati ves . In crafting p olici es and r egulati on s,
st at es should con sid er industry and co nsum er groups' conce rns t o
e nsure that mil e age is accurat e ly rea d and accowne d fo r and th at
differ e nt typ es o f conswners (e .g., dri ve rs in rura l se ttings ve rsu s
drive r s in urban se ttin gs) pay ra t es tl1at ar e equitably tail or ed to
th e ir dri vin g ha bi ts and e nvi ronments . F or exa mpl e , po li cies tai-
lore d to drive rs in rura l areas can be base d o n th e ave ra ge number
ri sks pe r mil e in rura l se ttings in st ea d o f tl1 e ave r age numbe r o f
ri sks p e r ave rage se tting.
5·
Consider transportation when developing rating systems for
green buildings and programs.
Over the p as t d eca d e, inte r es t in environme nta lly se n s iti ve
"gr ee n " buildings h as grown e xp o n e ntiall y. Th e p o t e ntial for
PROV IDE A VARIE TY OF TRANSPORTATION CHOICES II
e n e rgy, wa t er, and was t e reduction h as caugh t th e attention of
both tl1 e pu bli c an d pri vate sec tor s. Many juri sdi cti on s now u se a
rati n g sys t e m for sco ring a buil ding's en vi ronmental be n efits in
d eve lopm en t d ec is io n s, givin g in ce nti ves a nd pri o ri ty t o gr een
project s .
T h e U.S. Green Building Coun cil h as deve loped th e Lea ders hi p
in E n er gy and E n vironm ental D es ign (L EED ) r ating sys t e m to
ass ist d eve lo pe rs and loca l governmen ts in assess ing a structure's
"gr een-ness." Ea rly ve r sion s o f the scoring sys t e m con sid e red fa c-
t o rs suc h as e n e rgy u se, storm wa t er r e d uc ti o n , a nd u se of gr ee n
building m aterials . Whi le en vironmen ta l be nefits we r e re lated t o
tl1 e stru cture itse lf, tl1 e sys tem did n o t ac count fo r tl1 e en ergy, air
qu a li ty, and wa ter attributes of the buildin g's lo cati on . T h ose tak-
in g a b roa d er view o f a bui ldin g 's en vironm en t al impac t po inted
o u t tha t gr ee n buil d ings situ a t ed in re m o te ar eas could ac tu all y
in cr ease polluti on sin ce th ey were access ibl e o nl y by drivin g lo n g
di st an ces and m ay r e qui re large surface p arking lo t s . As u se o f
L EED sco rin g in cr ease d, o bse rve r s bega n t o think m o r e a bo ut
tl1 e en er gy n ee de d t o trans port goods, m at eri a ls, and peo pl e t o
and fr o m the site .
As a r esult, th e lat es t gen er ati o n o f L EED ratin gs evaluat es the
e n viro nm e nta l as p ect s o f loca ti o n . T h e L EED 2.0 sco r eca rd
includ es a sec ti on on su st ainabl e sites, including urb an redeve lo p-
m e nt, re du ce d buildin g foo tprint, and proxi mi ty to tran sit a nd
bi cycl e am eniti es . E xtra p oints ar e give n fo r "a lte rna ti ve tran s-
p o rtati on ," including p arking p oli cies, tran sit ben e fits, and ca r
sh arin g. Innova ti ve buildin g sys t e ms and sm art growth strategies
a re also hi ghly rated. F o r exampl e , po ints und e r th e g ree n build -
in g sys t e m ar e award ed fo r stru ctures loca t e d in a lre ad y-d eve l-
o pe d areas and reuse of brownfields sites . T h e st ate of Marylan d
h as tran slat ed its Sm art Cod e into a L EED score. T h e Sm art
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
Codes program was dev e loped to reduce code and permit barriers
to r en ovati n g older buildings in d eve loped areas. By renovating
an existi n g buildi11g, for exa mpl e, a builder can claim, at a mini -
mum , cr edit for site selection (I point), urban redev elo pment (1
point), buildmg r eus e (3 poi11ts), and resource reuse (2 points), as
well as meeting th e prer equisite for r ed ucin g the amount of waste
go in g to landfill s.
6 .
Transform park-and-ride lots into multiuse facilities.
Parki11g lots at transit sta ti o ns ar e typically u se d o nl y for parkin g.
However, these large, undevel o ped spaces offe r opportwlities for
satisfyin g commuter n ee ds without gen er ating additional trips.
Accordin g to the U.S. D e p artm ent of T r an sportati o n (DOT),
m o r e th an two-thirds of a ll trips are n o n-co mmutin g trips. In
add iti o n , the fastest growing share of trips is nonwork-related
(e.g., sho pping, recreation, and running e rrands). These smaller
trips co uld be reduced by incorporating sma ll grocery stores, dry-
cleaning busin esses, and banks into the area around th e transit
station parking lot so th at p eop le could complete their errands
during th eir commuting trip . In addition , the loca l vid eo stor e
and library co uld suppl y drop-off boxes n ea r th e transit station.
Local governments co uld also se t up a sma ll kiosk or satellite
office to provide a sma ll range of public services, su ch as answer-
ing tax inquiries, handlin g car regi stration renewa ls, and report-
ing city or co unty repair need s. A New J ersey Transit stati on in
Maplewood provides a concierge se rvice to link co mmuter s with
loca l service-provi ders an d retailers so that everyday errand s are
take n care of whi le passing through the train station to and from
work.7 The civic and r etail d eve lopment co uld be built withi11 a
s mall development footprint, making it ideal for areas w h ere
large-sca le tran sit-oriented development cou ld n ot be supported .
Depending on the size and mtensity of the deve lopment, as well
as on prices charged for parking, th e transit agency could ga in
revenue from l easi n g co mm e rci a l s p ace. As with a n y r e tail
provid er, customer-friendly location and hours are impo rtant
considerations. Some transit authorities, such as the Metropolitan
Transit Authority in New York City, ha ve limited th e types of
goods available fo r sa le to avoid tra sh and food-waste probl e ms
on trains and bu ses and in sta ti on s . In addition to r e ta il , locating
child care at the st ation, such as that offered at som e stati on s in
Washington State by Sound Transit, can offer a convenient alter-
n ative to those p ar e nts without ca rs .
Since development is likely to occur on land currentl y dedicat ed
t o p arking sp ots, resistance from commuters ma y arise at crow ded
parkin g facilities. However, th e spaces n ee ded for shops and pub-
li c services co uld be minimal. Moreover, th e lo ss of a small 1mm-
ber of parking sp aces must be we ighed agai nst th e eco nomi c, air,
and quality-of-life benefits th at would likely occur as a result of
the station's development.
7·
Integrate goods movement and delivery into smart growth.
Grow in g congestion o n o ur highways a nd at o ur ports h as
spurred new tllinkin g about goods m oveme nt, wa r eh ou si n g, and
distribution. Innovative id eas a re particularly needed sin ce the
vo lume of goods being delivered is also rising. U p until n ow,
freight plann e rs and th e carri er communi ty (e.g., tru cking and
delivery compani es) h ave focused o n a region's transportation
n etwork while overl ooking complementary smart growth policies
to d eve l op delivery imp roveme nts . In m ost cases, h owever,
improve m en ts cannot be built anew from the ground up, so tl1e
carrier community n eeds to work with planners and infrastructure
managers to identify improvements in existing delivery systems.
In many cases, freight improvements can be found in redevelop-
ment plans and by making better use of existing infrastructure
and community assets.
To make this a reality, carriers should be involved with localities
in cities with hi gh freight traffic to ensure that local decisions on
transportation and land use are "freight friendly." Since much of
our nation's freight is handl ed through entry points and distribu-
tion centers (or hubs), location and efficient siting of these large
facilities are important. Cities that prohibit distribution centers
within their boundaries and business districts may be forcing
longer delivery routes by creating "freight sprawl."
Brownfields are often located along riverfronts, train lines, and
major hi g h ways. These sites can offer good opportunities for
locating distribution and consolidation centers . Freight planners
can partner with state and loca l brownfields programs to assess
the potential siting of freight handling and distribution centers on
these loc ations.
Once loads are prepared at a distribution center for delivery, cre -
ative management of curbsid e space, parking lots, and routes is
essential to facilitate efficient goods movement to retailers.
Typically, cities have managed curbsides for cars, street trees, and
parking meters. Increasingly, loca liti es are finding it necessary to
address competition for space near curbs by delivery companies,
courier services, traffic, and commuter dropoff points. Given the
high competition for curbsid e space, cities should rethink all ot-
ment of this space. Cities can institute value pricing, which
assigns higher fees or parking meter rates during peak curbside
use hours. If meters are not available, cities can use permit park-
ing or assign various times dedicated to freight deliveries. The
Foundation for Intermodal Research and Education's brochure
PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION CHOICES II
e-Freight: Metropolitan Implications (http://www.intermodal.org/
FIRE/e-freight_brochure.html) describes policies that can be
implemented to facilitate freight and deliveries .
8.
Provide riders with customized transit information.
Far too often, marketing strategies for transit agencies begin and
end with printed posters and maps. While maps are essential for a
transit system, simply putting maps out in a display case does lit-
tle to improve ridership. One alternative is to provide customized
information directly to potential riders, as successfully demon-
stra ted by Portland, Oregon's recent pilot project. This project
focused on delivering individualized information, including home
visits, to people who expressed interest in alternatives to their
automobiles. Those who got customized information reduced
their automobile trips by 8 percent. In Perth, Australia, delivering
customized information about travel alternatives directly to trav-
e lers decreased the amount they drove by 10-15 percent.
Employers can also h elp . During the interview process, they can
provide prospective employees with maps showing th e most
direct transit routes in the area. At this st age, the employee could
make a more informed decision that considers the job, housing,
and transportation all at once. This could be further enhanced if
employers team up with real estate professionals or the local
newspaper's real estate section to match a variety of transporta-
tion alternatives with available h ousing.
Technology is advancing to the point at which interactive kiosks
can provide customized information. These computerized kiosks
could be placed not only in transit stations, but also in o ther
secure locations, such as libraries and hotels, and at major events
and festivals. Interactive kiosks would also be va lu ab le for com-
PRACTICE TIP:
The Alameda Corridor, a 20-mile
freight railway linking the Port of
Long Beach and Los Angeles to
downtown L.A., has helped to move
goods more efficiently while elimi-
nating many community hazards
and improving the quality of life in
the communities it traverses. Two
hundred street-level railroad cross-
ings will be eliminated, allowing
trains to travel more quickly and
easing traffic congestion. In addi-
tion, the Alameda Corridor
Transportation Authority has job
training and placement for hun-
dreds of residents in adjacent com-
munities. For more information
see:http://www.acta.org/home_
page.htm.
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
Map of Boston, Massachusetts'
subway system .
municating new routes in the event of unexpected route
changes or in case of emergencies .
9·
Create comprehensive bicycling programs.
Even though the use of bicycles for commuting and run-
ning errands is increasing, the percentage of trips made
on bikes is still small. According to a 2003 poll sponsored
by the American League of Bicyclists, 52 percent of
Americans would like to bike more often. Three-quarters
of those polled said that providing safe bike paths and
other amenities would prompt them to bike more.
A comprehensive bicycle program can create the condi-
f tions for bicycles to be a competitive transportation
J option. A good plan considers all points in the trip,
[ including the destination point, and provides safe and
'-------convenient routing and facilities. Bicycles are made still
more viable as transportation options when they are integrated
into the transportation system writ large-as a mode connected to
and coordinated with other modes. For instance, in some com-
munities transit authorities place bike racks strategically for maxi-
mum use, both on buses and rail cars as well as in transit stations
with lockers and near connecting lines. In addition, recreational
trails are increasingly being viewed as transportation facilities as
well, designed intentionally to connect housing with services,
entertainment, and employment.
One of the barriers to wider bicycle commuting is limited access
to showers and changing facilities. Some communities, such as
Denver, Colorado, and Iowa City, Iowa, require bicycle parking
for larger commercial buildings . In Sacramento, California,
developments with 100 or more employees may reduce their
parking requirement by providing shower and clothing locker
facilities for bicycle commuting employees. Other communities
have considered shower ordinances , but have been concerned
about costs to developers. King County, Washington, has pro-
vided grant monies for developers who build lockers and showers.
If a requirement for full facilities for each development project is
not feasible, developers can be encouraged to contribute to a
shared facility or work with a health club to provide special bike
commuter rates and packages . Portland, Oregon, sponsors a pro-
gram called "Bike Central," a network of facilities that provide
showers, lockers and bicycle racks to cyclists for a monthly fee of
$35 or a daily fee of$2.50 .
Community bike programs are also growing. Tampa, Florida;
Portland, Oregon; Madison, Wisconsin; Missoula, Montana; and
Boulder, Colorado, offer bikes free and for charge in downtown
districts. The most well-known shared bicycle programs are
highly visible, with bikes painted a bright color, such as orange in
Tampa or yellow in Decatur, Georgia. Montgomery County,
Maryland, runs a borrow-a-bike program for employees who
work for Rock Springs Park-area businesses.
Bike racks on buses
extend travel options
for cyclists.
IO.
Introduce value pricing.
Con ges ti on p ricing, va ri ab le -rat e t o ll s, and hi gh-occupan cy t oll
(or HOT) lan es ar e exa mples o f va lu e pricin g for roadways. In
va lu e -pricin g programs, dri ve r s who u se roa dways during peak
trave l h ours p ay hi gh er prices t o use the roadway or ce rtain lan es
des ign at ed for their u se. T h e id ea is to lesse n traffi c vo lume by
p rovi ding an in ce nti ve t o shift trave l times, in cr eas e ca rpoolin g ,
see k altern a ti ve routes, o r u se o the r form s o f tran s p o rta ti on .
D e bat e over con ges ti on pric ing h as been lively, and con trove r sial ,
for so m e t im e. O ppon ents o f co n ges ti on pri cin g contend tha t
su ch fees pla ce a re lati ve ly hi gh er finan cial burden on th ose wh o
m ake lower in com es, and that the administra ti ve costs o f imp le-
mentin g an d m aintaining the sys t em will outwe igh th e be ne fit s.
Prop o n ents argue th at all u se rs, rega r dless of th eir inco m es, are
fin an cia ll y bu rd en ed by contending wi th con ges t ed roa dways, and
that u ser fees are a fa ir way t o all ocat e r esources t o tran sp ortati on
in fras tructu re . P ro pon ents also n ot e th at buses becom e a m ore
attrac ti ve tran sit o pti on wh en they ca n r eli a bl y and qui ckl y move
thro u gh unco n ges ted lan es .
Va riabl e pri cin g is now gaining wi der acce ptance give n the n eed
fo r additi on al transpo rtati on inves tm en ts and the t o ll of tim e los t
on co ngeste d roa ds. A recen t Genera l Accountin g O ffi ce re port
supportin g the use of co n gestion pr icing8 and the wi de ly publi-
c ize d con ges ti on ch arge levie d in L o ndon , E n gland , h as add e d
legitim acy to th e con ce pt. Growing supp ort fro m a va ri ety o f
environmen ta l and smart growth group s, com bined wi th techno-
logica l advan ces, is pl ayi n g a crucia l ro le in m aking congestion
pr icin g feasi bl e and publicly acce pted .
An overa ll s m art growth st rategy s h o uld comb in e con ges ti on
p ri cing wi th other poli cies t o ac hi eve better over all tran sportati on
PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION CHOICES II
performan ce and a va ri ety o f trans portati on o ption s. Varia bl e-rat e
pri ci n g on roadways sh o uld be enhan ce d by an over all strat egy
th a t links h ou sin g, jo bs, and tran s portati on . T h e goal o f varia bl e -
r at e pricing is not t oll co ll ec ti on , but to find a m ethod t o bes t u se
the tran sportati on sys t em 's ca pac ity. While traffi c di stribution is
on e o bj ecti ve o f co n ges ti on pri cing, so m e roads may n o t be abl e
to handle, or sh ould n o t h andle, the shift. Plann ers sh ould look
no t o nl y at the roa d in qu es ti on , but also at the likely n etwo rk o f
alternati ve routes.
Concern ove r th e cos t fa irness o f con ges ti o n pri cing t o lower -
in co m e drivers is va lid. P o li cies can be d eve lo ped t o build fa irness
into th e sys t em. T h e equi ty of conges ti on pricing de p ends on the
h ow the co ll e cte d revenues ar e inves t e d and the avail a bili ty o f
trave l alternati ves. San Diego launch ed its P rice d Ex press L an es
in 1998 to see if varia bl e pri cing wou ld r educe con gestion . After
three year s, the projec t n ow ge n er at es $1.2 milli o n in annual r ev-
enues, a bout on e-half of whi ch is u se d t o support tran sit se rvi ce in
the cor r id o r . In foll ow-up su rveys, San D iego fo und support is
hi gh across all inco m e groups, with th e lowes t
incom e gr oup express in g stron ge r support than
the hi gh es t inco m e group (8 0 vs . 70 per ce nt).9
T he key in San Diego and L on don , and in all
va lue pri cing, is the existen ce of via bl e alterna-
ti ves. If drivers ca n ch oose altern at e m ea n s of
trans portati on, then the ch arge is incurred at the
d rive r 's di screti on ; that is, the dr ive r ch ooses t o
p ay for the co nvenie nce. O th erwise, th e char ge
simply beco m es a t ax. Where n o alte rn a ti ves
exis t , reve nue fro m val u e pricing can be u se d t o
crea t e al t ernati ves .
PRACTICE TIP:
The League of American Bicyclists
sponsors the Bicycle Friendly
Community Campaign. The cam -
paign is an awards program that
recognizes municipalities that
actively support bicycling. To see
which communities are bike friendly,
as well as the policies and ameni-
ties they have established ,
see the website to learn more, http://
www.bicyclefriendlycommunity.org.
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
Press release dated Ap ril 4, 2003, see http://www.apta.com/medja/releases/
congestion.c&n.
Press release dated May 5, 2003, from the League of American Bicyclists.
Results from a poll conducted by Belden Russonello and Stewart (BRS)
and a press release from the Surfa ce Transportation P o licy Proj ect dated
April !, 2003; see http://www.tran sac t.org/report.as p.
Victoria T ran sport P o li cy Institute, "Tran sportation Cost and Benefit
Analysis-Parking Costs" (updated June 2003), http://www.vtpi .org/tca/
tca0504.pdf.
For a more complete exp lanation of modelill g, see "Inside the Black Box:
Mahlng Transportation Models Work for Livable Communities" by
Edwa rd Beimborn , Rob Kennedy, and Willi am Schaefer at http://www.
en vi ro nmentald efe nse .o rg/ documents/ 185 9 _InsideBl ackBox . pdf.
Source: SmartCommute, press release, 7/23/03.
Local Government Comm iss ion . For a summary of illformation, resources
and references, see http://www.l gc.org/freepub/PDF/Land_Use/focus/
traffic_safety. pdf
For more inform ation, see http ://www.m a pl ewoodonlin e.com/concierge/
http ://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03 73 5t.pdf
United States D epartment of Transportation, Federa l Highway
Adrnirustratio n , "Va lu e Pricillg Pilot Program Project Descriptions"
(upd ate d J w1e 5, 2003); see http://www.fbwa.dot.gov/policy/otps/
projdesc.htm.
Chapter 9
Make Development
Decisions Predictable, Fair,
and Cost-Effective
I n the 1980s, if one wanted to see an example
of smart growth, he or she had only a hand-
ful of examp les across the country from which
to choose. In the 1990s, however, the majority
of states had at least one smart growth project
to showcase. Today, there are hundreds of
smart growth projects across the nation that are
either complete or under construction.1 Smart
growth, as an investment opportunity, offers
deve lopers a diverse range of investment-grade
options to choose from: brownfields, greyfields,
urban infi ll s, transit-oriented projects, pedes-
trian -oriented projects, and trad itional neigh-
borhood development on greenfield sites.
Still, these efforts have not come easi ly to
fruition. For entrepreneurs, project execution
4•"' $MART GROWTH
NETWORK
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
has had its share of risk and uncertainty. For local governments,
the development process has required new laws, complex agree-
ments, incentive packages, and personal sacrifice, and stakehold-
ers who are committed to effecting change have oftentimes
clashed over the direction of development.
Many lessons have been learned from past successes and failures.
Public incentives are becoming more refined . Local approva l
processes are becoming more streamlined. Developers have a bet-
ter understanding of their product and how to attract end-users.
New solutions are extending beyond individual sites to include
districts and, in some cases, entire jurisdictions. Most importantly,
there is a heightened level of knowledge, education, and experi-
ence that exists for the benefit of all interested parties who seek to
provide new choices in how people can li ve, work, play, and pro-
tect the environment.
To continue receiving attention from investors, lenders, devel-
opers, and entrepreneurs, smart growth must be profitable.
While no real estate venture is without challenges, there exists a
higher degree of risk associated with smart growth development
than with single-use projects found within conventional devel-
opment patterns. In this regard, there is still a lot the public sec-
tor can do to reduce barriers to development, level the playing
field, and encourage smarter growth . It is not enough to focus
attention on so lutions at a specific site only to repeat the same
proce ss for an adjace nt parcel. T o incr e a se development and
reduce risk, local governments should act uniformly and consis-
tently. Such a business practice can communicate a message to
developers that greater certainty and predictability exist in the
development process.
I.
Educate elected leaders and public officials about smart growth.
Many communities are discovering smart growth . In these places,
citizens expect their public officials to use smart growth to make
their towns and neighborhoods better, more livable places.
Prospects for smarter development are greatly enhanced when
public leaders can clearly articulate a strong vision about h ow and
where growth should occur.
E lected and appointed leaders who know the importance of good
urban design, scale, diversity, and proper integration of new proj-
ects within the existing built environment can achieve higher-
quality growth that retains value over time. Understanding these
tools and le arning h ow they encourage development require
training and education. To meet this cha ll enge, a number of state
and national design centers around the country have emerged to
teach elected leaders and public officials about smart growth .
The Maine Smart Growth Institute in Augusta brings together
local, regional, state, and federal officials with private-sector lead-
ers to educate them about smart growth, land economics, market-
place economics, and existing growth and development patterns.
They receive training on smart growth concepts, design tech-
niques, development principles , and development incentives, as
well as the tools to train others. The Florida Public Officials
Design Institute in Jupiter brings design and planning expertise
to elected officials at specific community sites. Operated by
Florida Atlantic University's Catanese Center, the design institute
provides elected leaders with training and problem-specific tools,
design options for better development, and concrete suggestions
to implement smart growth.
At the national level, organizations are also training elected offi-
cials about smart growth. The J oint Center for Sust ainable
Communities in Washington, D.C., h e lps loca l e lected officials
build sustainable communities by providing t echnical assistance,
training, and educa tional forums. The Smart Growth Leadership
Institute trains state and local e lected leaders on h ow to effec -
tively create and implement smart growth initiatives. The Mayor's
Institute on City Design teaches mayors advocacy for good design
through workshops and by recommending specific ways to make a
subs t antial impact on the quality of development in their cities
and towns. Graduates of these education al programs acquire the
knowledge and tools necessary to green -li ght projects that
become models for smart gr?wth n ationwid e.
Every day, elected leaders ar e ca ll ed on t o assist with large build-
ing and development projects. They must approve specia l vari-
ances, n egotiate exception s, and communic ate with their con-
stituents about the positive impacts of these projects on their
communities. Every approved project serves as an opportunity to
add va lue to a community, to make it ordinary, or to make it
worse . Confusion about what i s desired and what is finally
approved can send mixed messages to developers, who may sim-
ply opt t o pursue an other project where the process is easier and
m ore transparent. Such outc omes can be avoided through leader-
ship training and education.
2.
Direct development along corridors to create stronger districts.
Corridors can function as multipurpose districts that unify a
diverse range of neighborhood uses with civic space, link town
cent ers, capita li ze on existing infrastructure, and build stronger
commercial districts. High-density projects are more appropriately
MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FA I R, AND COST-EFFECTIVE m
located along corridors, where transportation capacity is greater.
Corridors should be planned to conveniently link town centers.
This can be accomplished by transit stops for passenger rail, bus,
or li ght rai l along boulevards (intra-city) or avenues (inner-city).
Well-designed avenues wi th frequent inte r sections provide an
environment for area residents to walk or bike t o local destination
n odes. As transportation modes increase, so does commu t er access
to corridor employment. Transportation planning can position th e
corridor as a job center t o attract new business .
A primary benefit of corridor planning is to create an economic
district that is stronger than the sum of its component parts (i.e.,
the sma ll er individual centers). Merchants, especially national
retailers, select n ew markets based on loc al demographics, day-
time population, transportation opti on s, accessibili ty, parking,
and the prospect for retail synergy. Similarly, office markets are
best defined w h en offi ce buildings are l ocated close to one
another. R ather than scattering strip retail centers and office
buildings in a random fashion throughout a region, the corridor
extends development beyond individual centers while still focus-
ing it within establi shed markets. This type of growth reinforces
the viabili ty of the individual cent er s, provides direc tion for n ew
development, and creates a stronger business district whil e being
more cost-effective for the region.
Over 30 years ago, Arlington County, Virginia, began a planning
process for the two -square-mile area encompassing the R oss lyn
and Ball ston neighborhoods. Almost immediately, several devel-
opment projects were initiated that set the course for hi gher-den-
sity projects and intense commercial uses on major streets that
linked five new Metro rail stations. Today, some sections of the
corrid or are undergoing a second wave of development. Between
1999 and 2002, more than 2,500 apartments and condominiums
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
This partial image of the Rosslyn-
Ballston Metro Corridor illustrates
Arlington, Virginia's success in link-
ing several town centers to create a
larger district through corridor
planning.
were constructed, and 1.5 million square feet of office space and
3 79 ,000 square feet of retail space have been built. The corridor
contributes more than 33 percent of the county's real estate tax
revenue, yet encompasses less than 10 percent of the county's land
area. Under typical suburban conditions, the corridor's density
wou ld be spread out over 14 square miles of open space. Such
concentration and synergy of uses have contributed to its remark-
able market resiliency, despite a sagging economy. In 2002,
Arlington County's Rosslyn-Ballston Metro Corridor Project was
honored with one of the U.S Environmental Protection Agency's
(EPA) National Awards for Smart Growth.
3·
Create pattern books to stream-
line construction and enhance
g> project marketability.
~ A pattern book is an old concept
!: f used by builders to establish the
J basic form of buildings and to
f provide key architectural ele-
f ments and detail. Such books pro-
i vide builders with a variety of
5 ~ renderings and images of accept-• J able treatments necessary to build
f. a house. By va rying the differ ent
$
[ details and options, builders can
[
f create an unlimited number of
housing patterns within a com-
mon architectural standard,
thereby providing each unit with its own unique flair. Such places,
both old and new, are highly desirable to homebuyers, and pat-
tern books help ensure the quality and variety of new homes on
the market.
Developers are beginning to re-enlist pattern books to assist pro-
duction builders in the construction of new housing units in
smart growth projects. This tool serves as an instruction book for
builders who traditionally work from their own standard subdivi-
sion home plans. Pattern books assist the builder in executing the
development's concept as articulated in the project's architectural
and design codes. Not only are pattern books advantageous in the
construction process, but developers are finding that they are also
a key component of the overall sales marketing program. Pattern
books allow for a greater number of housing variations to be cre-
ated than is commonly found in conventional subdivisions. As a
result, consumers have more choices and often like the unique-
ness of the product-aspects that distinguish pattern book neigh-
borhoods from cookie-cutter subdivisions that have a small num-
ber of product types.
Pattern books are also becoming advantageous to developers
during the approval process, as new projects require more com-
munity input. Pattern books can help to communicate the pro-
posed master plan's character to the community and approving
officials, and can be used to assure them that "what they see is
what they'll get." Once general consensus has been reached on a
master plan, the pattern book serves as a means to implement it.
T his process engages builders, developers, archi t e cts, and r eal
estate professionals in a more technical process. If prepared
correctly, a pattern book can reduce misunderstandings between
homeowners, the developer, builders, and subcontractors.
Pattern books enable all participants to understand, embrace ,
and build from a shared vision . 2
The Styl6 of Providence: Bungalow Vernacular; p. D-4, A Pattern Book for the Architttture of Providenu,
200), court6y of Place Makers, LLC.
4·
Make zoning codes and other land development regulations
simple to use and easy to read.
When con sidering her option s under most conventi onal zoning
codes, a developer may spend a great deal of time and expe nse
merely working out what activities or ch anges are permitted and
what are not. In some cases, the code may be written in compli -
cated "lega lese" that is difficult for developers (and citizens) to
decipher. In others, th e code may contain confusing cross-refer-
ences to o th er sections of the code, or permitted uses may be
spread out in long sections of repetitive text. Simplicity and ease
of use benefits all interested parties, beca u se everyone can quickly
understand the rules of the game.
One reason for this complexity is that many codes are amended
several times over many decades, without undergoing a complete
update. In the case of Mi lwaukee, Wiscons in , the code h ad
become, over time, "a collection of Post-It notes." Among other
oddities, the old code had more than 125 different zoning dis-
tricts, many of which were never used. After a four-year revision
process begun in 1997, the city council adopted many of the
changes proposed by city staff and an appointed task force. The
changes were dramatic. The code was slimmed down from 25
sections to only 10, unnecessary districts were eliminated, and a
Computerized Zoning Ordinance is now available and searchable
through the Web. The code now conforms closely to the zoning
MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR, AND COST-EFFECTIVE m
A page from the pattern book for
Providence, a new traditional town
i n Huntsville, Alabama, provides
examples of vernacular roofs and
eaves for bungalow models within
the development.
map (see Poli cy 8), and the zoning map was updated to better
reflect current patterns o f development. Due to the simplifi ca tion
of ad ministrative procedures, developers n o lo n ger h ave to go
through a cumbersome process a t the board of zo ning appea ls.
Review time at the board of zoning appeals was reduced from an
average of 27 weeks per case in 1998 to 6 to 8 weeks in 2001.3
Several other localiti es h ave undergone similar revisions to m ake
their codes more u ser-frie ndly, including D etroit, Chicago, and
Honolulu. Simplicity is not an easy goal to achieve. After the city
of D ayton undertook an effo rt t o update its code, o n e co nsultant
involved in th e process n oted th at officia ls always had to be mind-
ful of that goa l, "because every time we thought of a n ew good
idea to include, that could increase complexity."4
5·
Create a multimunicipal planning strategy to provide for devel-
opment in rural markets while maintaining rural character.
Some st ates require their municipalities to create individual land
use plans that include a ll possible zoning uses within its jurisdic-
tion. This ch all enge can be quite daunting, and for many rural
towns such lega l requirements can have unintended consequences
that impact the rural character of a region. By zonin g for a ll uses,
rural communities are p laced in a precarious position. The
municipalities must designate the future removal of valuab le open
space for noncompatible uses in rural areas (such as apartments,
offices, or industrial complexes), and, moreover, the nonrural uses
often diminish the spirit of the community. Under today's plan-
ning measures, these nonrura l uses are located in rura l regions far
from existing centers. The location of such development requires
new infrastructure that is costly to implement and maintain.
Municipalities throughout Pennsylvania and ew Jersey are con -
PRACTICE TIP:
In Smart Growth Zoning Codes: A
Resource Guide, author Steve Tracy
provides several tips for writing
smart growth codes that are easy
to use. These include:
• Use straightforward language
and terms that are unambigu-
ously defined and used consis-
tently.
• Provide simple explanations that
avoid unnecessary complexity.
Try to keep each section of the
code self-contained and avoid
confusing cross references,
exceptions, and footnotes.
• Use tables or graphics to com-
municate zoning criteria and
development standards, and
avoid lengthy and repetitive
text.. .. List setbacks for different
zones and building types in
tables rather than repeating the
same phrase over and over with
different numbers. 5
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
sidering other planning solutions as a means to enhance economic
development while preserving rural character.6 One tool is multi-
municipal planning (multiplanning), which is being utilized as an
effective tool for rural regions to foster economic growth with
minimal impact on their rural value.
Multiplanning affords rural communities the opportunity to work
together to benefit from growth while protecting rural priorities.
The multiplanning strategy blunts some of the distortions intro-
duced by the requirement to plan for all uses. It can reduce the
cost of infrastructure by concentrating high-intensity and dense
uses in fewer areas. It can also preserve agricu ltura l land and
other critical open spaces across jurisdictions. From a regional
perspective, multiplanning facilitates tax revenue sharing, thus
reducing the need for municipalities to compete agai n st one
another for commercial development. This allows municipalities
to conserve land while still benefiting from nearby commercial or
industrial development. Additionally, multiplanning can provide
for a consistent set of rules within the planning region, thereby
making development more attractive.
There are also a number of incentives for municipalities partici-
pating in multiplanning that vary according to state law. In
Pennsylvania , participating municipalities do not need to provide
for every type of possible use but may co ll ectively spread those
uses over regional geographic areas. The municipalities can
receive state agency priority funding for such planning and imple-
mentation, and there is a greater likelihood that state agencies will
rely on multiplanning to make funding and permitting decisions.
To the benefit of developers and investors, multiplanning outlines
where the designated growth areas are for an entire region and
where rural growth boundaries begin. It saves the developer and
investor from fighting individual development battles in each
municipality in the multiplan. It also ensures adequate infrastruc-
ture to sustain development where it is deemed appropriate.
6.
Establish a state-or regional-level "smart growth cabinet."
D eve lopment patterns and practices are influenced by many gov-
ernment actions, including transportation projects, infrastructure
decisions, housing policies, economic development programs, and
environmental protection strategies. Without clear direction and
coordination , these agencies , policies, and programs can send con-
tradictory messages to the development market. This can be espe -
cially true for smart growth development given that existing zoning
codes, regulations, and ordinances do not accommoda t e smart
growth practices as a matter of course. Currently, the approval
process for smart growth development requires varia nces and
intradepartmental agreement. To make smart growth innovation
easier than , and more competitive with, conventional development,
states have created "cabinets" that are made up of state-level cabi -
net members and top executives of agencies and departments.
States that h ave smart growth cabinets serve various purposes and
have numerous goals; ye t , they do have commonalities . In some
form or another, these cabinets set smart growth policy, coordi -
nate interdepartmental procedures and programs, review pro-
grams for adherence to smart growth principles, and resolve con-
flicts among agencies and departments in the implementation
process. Many of these states have adopted smart growth princi-
ples for guidance. It is common to find these cabinets focusing on
comprehensive state development programs in addition to the spe-
cific interests of the state, such as brownfields redevelopment, the
strengthening of existing centers, economic development, trans-
portation and mobility, pollution, and open space conservation.
I Regardless of political party or geographic location , governors are
l ooking at smart growth to help conserve l and and fiscal
resources, reduce pollution, and plan for growth. Smart gr owth
"cabinets" can assist by creating consistent investment and incen-
tive policies at the state level, m onitoring sta t e progress in devel-
opment and co n servatio n , assisting loca l govern m ents in their
smart growth efforts, streamlining statewide implementation, and
removing barriers to better growth .
7·
Create an "incentives expert" for developers and businesses
when an area has been designated for development/
redevelopment.
Many developers are not aware of a ll the ava il ab le incenti ves
wh en considering a smart growth project. An incentives expert
guides developers though the existing toolkit, recommending
incentive options, exp l aining programs, and providing other
advice. If n ot a specifica ll y created position, this role could be ful-
filled by a knowledgeable municipal p lanner or economic-or
community-deve lopme n t director.
Making the development process fair and predictable for develop-
ers does n ot require sophisticated technology but can be acco m-
plished by us in g avai lab le resources more effective ly and by mini-
rnizing obstacles. The existence of incentives in an area targeted
for development welcomes developers. However, even when valu-
ab l e incentive programs exist, developers o ft en h ave difficulty
navigating the complex maze of paperwork and understanding eli-
gibility requirements.
One way to assist the development process for entrepreneurs is to
designate a professional for all inquiries and marketing of incen-
tives. This individual may be assigned to active developers or
specifically identified develop-
ment sites or may serve as a liai-
son t o investors wh o are consid -
erin g developing properties that
the t own desires to h ave rebuilt.
The incen ti ve exper t sh ou ld be
we ll versed in the incentives, the
community's strengths, and the
type of development desired.
Emp ire State D eve lop m ent of
ew York provides businesses
and investors with su ch informa-
tion for n ew projects and relocat-
ing businesses. They a lso assist
decision makers with bond pro-
grams, tax and finance incentives,
a nd energy-savin g measures, as
well as opportunities in different
incentive zones.7 A loca l govern -
ment li aison sh ould also possess a
list of sites qualified to rece ive
incentives and market those sites
accordingly.
Developers perform a comp lex
series of calculations before com-
mitting to a project. Some of the
factors they consider include
financing, market opportunities,
ease of entry, timing, and work-
force avai l abi lity. Alth ough a
town cannot contro l many of
MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR, AND COST-EFFECTIVE m
PRACTICE TIP:
A number of states (e.g., Minnesota, Wisconsin, Kentucky, North
Dakota, and Utah> have adopted smart growth initiatives. In addi -
tion to their own state initiatives, Colorado, New Jersey, and
Maryland have also established state smart growth offices. To date,
only Maryland has had a state-level cabinet position for its smart
growth executive. The following seven states and one regional
authority have cabinets that pursue smart growth policies:
Illinois Balanced Growth Cabinet
Office of the Governor
http ://www.state. i I. uslstate/bal anced/cabinet. htm
Maine Smart Growth Coordinating Committee
Maine State Planning Office
http ://www.state .me.uslspo/landuse/tfandcomm/sgcc/index/php
Maryland Smart Growth Subcabinet
Maryland Governor's Office of Smart Growth
http://www.smartgrowth.state.md.usl
Massachusetts Commonwealth Development Coordinating Council
Office of the Governor
http://mass.gov
Michigan Land Use Leadership Council
Department of Environmental Quality Environmental Science
& Service
http://www.michiganlanduse.org/
New Jersey Smart Growth Policy Council
Office of Smart Growth, New Jersey Dept. of Community Affairs
http://www.nj.gov/dca/osg/commissionslsgpc .s html
Pennsylvania lnteragency Land Use Team
Governor's Center for Local Government Serv ices
Department of Community and Economic Development
http://www.landuseinpa.org
Great Lakes Sustainable Land Use Commission
http://www.glc.org/bridgesl
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH 11
PRACTICE TIP:
• Provide your contact person with
the tools necessary to launch a
successful project.
• Create a fact sheet about the
incentive programs.
• Include relevant names and
phone numbers of town officials,
local lenders, and local agencies,
as well as contact information
for relevant state or other offi-
cials.
• Create a notebook that includes
all documents previously used
for a variety of successful proj-
ects as samples of accurate
preparation.
• Develop a list of the most com-
mon, and most expensive, mis-
takes that developers have made.
these factors, it may have already created incentives to reduce the
am ount of hurdles. An incentives expert can clearly communicate
with potential investors and streamline the incentive process,
thereby increasing the community's chances of attracting the type
of development it wants.8
8.
Implement geographic information system-based planning
into the development process.
Geographic information sys tems (GIS) are already impacting
planning and development review. When used creatively, GIS can
speed up the development review process and measure character-
istics such as walkability and mix of u ses .
GIS are a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing large
amounts of datasets, including land use, employment, transporta-
tion, and environmental layers. GIS can be used to quickly ana-
lyze the environmental characteristics of any potential building
site. Some of thes e characteristics may include soil type, aqui fer
capacity, steep slopes, floodplains, wetlands, buffer zones, and
view sh eds. The accessibility of a site to transportation and utility
infrastructure may be eva luated . Urban and transportation plan-
ners aggregate these and other measurements to develop projec-
tions for the future requirements and impacts of various land uses.
Planning and zoning departments around the U.S. are reviewing
an increasing number of development proposals with fewer staff
and resources. GIS ca n help ease this burden by providing the
means to quickly and easi ly eva luate plan reviews. Timely reviews
provide an attractive business climate for developers because of
the increased certainty in the development review process. The
city of San Diego invested heavily in GIS (Process 2000) in order
to streamline their development review process. On average,
waiting times for certain permits have been reduced by as much
as nine months.9
Map Milwaukee combines GIS with public data to provide com -
prehensive information about site location, zoning, parcel data,
and property ownership. The maps can be useful to Milwaukee
developers by providing information for the planning and permit-
ting of new and remodeled buildings. A developer is ab le to
determine, among other things, if a parcel is located in a business
improvement district or a targeted investment neighborhood or if
it is an improved property that is for sa le .
To further advance smart growth, GIS can add certainty to-and
can acce lerate-the approval process. Localities can set and make
public community-specific development standards similar to the
smart growth scorecards in use around the country (see Principle
8, Policy 5). GIS provide a way to objectively measure a develop-
ment's performance on many measures, such as walkability and
access t o transit or open space, thus removing some of the uncer-
t ai nty from the process . In this way, speedy reviews can be com-
bined with development performance measures, and developers
have a clearer idea as to the standards that must be met, how they
will be judged, and, potentially, what benefits come with different
levels of excellence.
9·
Streamline brownfield redevelopment approval processes.
Many barriers have traditionally discouraged investment in con -
taminated properties. Prospective property developers and own-
ers often choose to develop uncontaminated greenfields rather
than risk liability, costs of cleanup, and uncertainty associated
with redeveloping brownfield properties. Since the 1990s, a
growing understanding of the potential benefits of brownfield
1
redevelopment to surrounding communities and regions has led
policy makers to create incentives for brownfield redevelopment.
In particular, state -initiated vo luntary cleanup programs (VCPs)
have played an important role. Almost every state has enacted
some type ofVCP to encourage owners, developers, and munici-
palities to initiate site cleanups. In addition, many municipalities
have adopted their own brownfields redevelopment incentives.
States and municipalities often combine incentives, such as finan-
cia l assistance, reduced liability, and other measures . Streamlined
approva l processes, which can be accompli shed by incorporating
simpli fied, more efficient administrative procedures and by
encouraging community participation, may be the next frontier.10
Milwaukee, a city with a highly industrial past and home to many
brownfields properties, is targeting its brownfields redevelopment
in four state-designated development zones. Key components of
their revitalization program include:
• Predevelopment roundtables for large projects where public
agencies and developers identify potential hurdl es and preempt
regulatory delays
• Arranging for land assemb ly and acting as a liaison to
state regulators
• A city-run development center that provides a single point of
contact and assistance for obtaining construction and
building permits.11
Agencies can also streamline approval by setting specific review
timelines to ensure that the review of an application will be com-
plete within a certain number of days after the time of submis-
sion. In addition, public entities can also facilitate redevelopment
by providing informational support, low-cost consulting, techni-
ca l assistance, GIS analysis, and records of past uses. These proce-
MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR, AND COST-EFFECTIVE m
dures and forms of administrative support reduce delays in
brownfield cleanup, clarify requirements, and provide informa-
tion to prospective developers and property owners. They are
important in addressing critical barriers to redevelopment, such
as high transaction costs . The relatively inexpensive state assis -
tance programs associated with reducing decision-making costs
may actually have more impact than far more expensive financial
subsidi es that are intended to increase returns or, in comparison
to risk-based standards, that may raise environmenta l justice or
health concerns.12
IO.
Create investment funds for smart growth projects.
A growing number of developers and investors who have com-
pleted smart growth projects are looking for additional opportu-
nities. Because of their experience, investors are becoming more
knowledgeable in identifying the components of a smart growth
project. Their experience a lso provides developers with a so lid
understanding of what to expect in the development process. In
short, smart growth is becoming more predictable for the sea -
soned real estate professional. These investors are now poised to
identify, through smart growth investment funds, opportunities in
bulk that produce a "double bottom line"-one that is profitable
to investors and supports the goals of smart growth.
CalPERS, the largest public pension fund in the U.S., h as two
smart growth programs totaling $300 million. The Northern
California Urban Infill Investment Program has a $100 million
equity fund that increased to $200 million the year it was funded.
Bridge Housing Corporation and RREEF, two real estate firms,
each manage $100 million of the fund's allocation . CalPERS also
has a similar fund, managed by Common Wealth Partners, LLC,
• GETTINGTOSMARTGROWTHll
FINANCE TIP:
A number of lending sources have
funding initiatives for smart growth
projects that help create livable
communities, support transporta-
tion options, and foster sustainable
patterns of land use. Other funders
support affordable housing and
community development, specialize
in programs that support low-
income and minority communities,
or fund the protection of open
space. These funders help make
development decisions more pre-
dictable by providing a stream of
capital to developers and communi-
ties when conventional funding
sources cannot be relied upon. See
Appendix B for an abbreviated
directory of lenders and founda -
tions that have supported, or can be
used to support, smart growth.
va lu ed at $100 million doll ar s aimed at Southern C alifornia. Bo th
programs a pply sm art growth inves tment strategies that foc u s on
n ew and re h a bilitati ve co n stru cti o n .13
Ameri can Ventures, a C o ral Ga bl es, F lorid a-base d inves tment firm ,
ha s r ecently launched two rea l es t at e investment fund s t arge ting
urban n e ig hbo rhoods in M i a mi and Albuque rqu e, N.M. Fund
managers will h ave $5 0 milli o n to $100 million to inves t fo r each
ci ty. T h e fund s will t ar ge t mix ed-use projects within th e central
busin ess di stricts. Albuquerqu e an d Miami wer e selected bec ause of
th e pro-deve lopment attitud e o f e lect ed offi cial s and th e des ire o f
eac h to improve neglected co mmuniti es. T h e initiati ve is exp ected
to attrac t inves tm ent fro m pri va te fo und ati on s committed to a mi s-
sio n of revi t ali zing de pressed co mmunities . T h e fund s wi ll work
wi th state pen sion and p e rman e nt fund s and fed er al ban ks and
S&Ls subj ect to the Communi ty R e in ves tm ent Act .
Ro bert Steuti vi ll e, "New U r ban P rojects on a Neigh borhood Sca le in th e
U nited States," New Urban News 7, n o. 8 (2 00 2).
U rban Design Associates, "Pattern Books and Design Guideljnes " (May
14, 2003), 1: http ://www.u r bandes ignassociates.com/servicespattern.h anl
Proceedjngs of"Reformjng Codes, Revitalizing Commwlities: An I CMA
Regiona l Forum on Revising Codes to Achieve Smart Growth"
(Washington, D .C.: Internation al C ity/County Management Association,
fo rthcoming).
4 Ibid.
Steve Tracy, Smart Growth Zoning Codes: A Resource Guide (Sacramento:
L oca l Governm ent Comnlission, 200 3).
6 P ennsylvania Munici palities Planillng Code, Act 247 of 1968; the
"Growing Smarter" Ame ndme nts, Acts 67 & 68, 2000; and New J ersey
Mwlici pa l Land Use Law, Section 40 :55D-77.
For detai ls, see h ttp://www.empire.sta te.ny.us/nysdd.
8 Much of thi s section is adapted &om Terry llichman, "Is Your Town
D eve lo per Friendly?"
h ttp ://www.cardi.cornell .edu/cd_too lbox_2/tools/dev_fr iend ly_town.cfin.
Re printed from "Towns & Topics," Association of Town s of State of New
York (Se ptembe r-October, 2002).
Geor ge Arim es, "D oin g th e J o b in D ou bl e T ime," Planning (Ma rch 1997).
1° For mo re in fo rm atio n, see th e U.S. E PA report Redevelopment: Economic
Engine and Env ironmenta l Opportunity. An electronjc ve rsio n of the report
and in formation for ordering a h ardcopy can be fo und at
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth.
11 Ange la E . Viruljj, C harl otte D oughe rty, and Dan Hutch , "Urban
C om pe ti tive Advantage and Brownfields Redeve lopmen t," Brownfields
2002 Conference Proceedings (Ch arlotte, NC, ove mbe r 13-15, 2002),
h ttp://www.brownfields2002.org/proceedings2000/5-07v.pdf.
12 Peter B. Meyer, "Approach to Brownfield Regeneration: T h e Re lative
Value of Finan cial Incen tives, Relaxed Mjtiga ti on Standards and
Regulatory Certa in ty" (worhng paper; Lowsvi ll e, KY: Center for
E nviron me nta l Poli cy an d Man agement, U ni vers ity ofLoujsvill e, 2000).
13 The Ca lPERS Web site at http ://www.ca lpers.ca.gov/ detai ls both funds
and their "Sma rt G rowth" in vesanent strategy.
............ . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .. . . . "" .......... . . ' .. ·-... --
Chapter JO
Encourage Community and
Stakeholder Collaboration in
Development Decisions
T he current development process satisfies
neither citizens nor the development
community, even though process changes that
can benefit both parties can be identified by
collaborating on development decisions. After
undergoing a lengthy, exhaustive vi sionin g
process, citizens can become frustrated and dis-
illusioned when their expectations for outlined
plans, codes, and , ultimately, development are
not met. Like the development community, the
overall community benefits from a clear, open,
and predictable development process.
Lessons on h ow to better engage stakehold ers
are coming to li ght as more communities adopt
smart growth. First, communities need to be
engaged at or near the beginning of the
$MART GROWTH
NETWORK
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
process. When community members are brought in late , the
process and development plans are not likely to be inclusive and,
subsequently, are viewed by the community with distrust. In addi-
tion, the plans may be so far along in the design process that con-
structive suggestions cannot be easily integrated at a later stage .
Second, new tools to envision a project's impact and to tap into
stakehold ers' creativity are constantly being developed . State-of-
the-art tools and technologies, such as a visual-preference survey
or a computer tool to illustrate a proposed project in its setting,
ha ve enabled developers to create interactive, virtual models of
proposed plans for development. Such tools help developers cre-
ate design details that are beneficial to both the community and
the project.
Providing community members with user-friendly information on
plans and projects is also important. Media outlets, such as local
newspapers and news stations, are ski ll ed at delivering commu-
nity-related information to a diverse audience, and local colleges
and businesses are also key resources to conveying information
pertin ent to the community planning process.
Finally, involving the full range of stakeho ld ers in the develop-
ment process, though difficult, is one of the best ways to ensure
that growth will result in a more li vable, more vibrant community
that accurately reflects local needs and values. The policies pre-
sented below are intende d to assist in engaging all stakeholders in
the development process.
I.
Use third-party groups to make sure a range of stakeholder
views is expressed.
Often, the development approval process results in a h eated
exchange between the developer and representatives of adjacent
neighborhoods. Consequently, the only issues presented to deci-
sion officials tend to underscore potential negative impacts to
neighboring properties and to reiterate what the developer is will-
ing to build. Because development decisions rarely affect the
neighboring community or builder only, introducing other com-
ments, or third-party testimonies, on the potential positive and
negative impacts can shape a better vision for the final project.
For example, a local chamber of commerce may offer comments
on a housing and jobs mix that other stakeholders feel uncomfort-
able addressing due to other priority areas or lack of expertise.
Third-party analysis and testimony have typically advocated
affordable housing. In recent years, however, third-party testi-
monies have commonly supported compact development, a wider
range of density, and mixed uses. Third-party views are typically
useful for projects that may be viewed with skepticism by neigh-
borhood residents (e.g., where commercial uses or apartments are
to be introduced in residential neighborhoods).
To be credible, third-party groups need to rooted in the commu-
nity and mus t represe nt an array of community interes t s. For
example, in the San Francisco Bay area, the Transportation and
Land Use Coalition is made up of 90 local organizations that sup -
port better transportation, affordable housing, and participatory
community design. In addition to including environmental and
transportation advocates, the coalition includes church officials
and representatives of the elderly. This group has expertise in
transportation and jobs/housing links.
Third-party groups
also need to establi sh
project criteria for a
development so that
the group's endorse-
m e nt is n o t see n as
arb itrary and subj ective. For examp le, the Washington Smart
Growth Al li ance in the District of Columbia sponsors a Smart
Growth Recognition Program. The team, made up of developer,
civic, and environmental interests, reviews commercial and resi-
dential development proposals and writes letters of support and
testimony if a project meets th e program's criteria. Amon g other
requirements, the plan n ed development must be located in or
adjacent to developed areas, have sufficient density, provide trans -
portation options, and generate benefits for the surrounding area.1
2.
Use nonprofit groups as smart growth consultants.
Bringing together all of the stakeholders in the development
process can be a large undertaking. Many communities find that
they do not have inhouse planning expertise or the funds to hire a
co n su ltan t. Increasingly, smart growth groups, which typ ica ll y
comprise supporters wh o ha ve a variety of backgrounds (e.g.,
transportation, zoning, watersh ed protection, etc.), are filling this
gap by offering their services.
The American Farmland Trust, a Washington, D.C., nonprofit
that advocates farmland preservation, is one leader in this field. Its
Community Farmland Protection Consulting Services group
helps neighborhoods and towns estimate the costs of services for
various development patterns, identify valuable resource lands,
and engage the publi c in planning and creating purchase-of-
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS II
development rights.2 To find simil ar organization s, communities
can consult state and loca l smart growth groups, watershed-pro-
tection organi za ti on s, and land co nserva n cie s to lea rn about who
may have expertise in p lanning, lead ing worksh ops, or condu cting
site an alyses.
U nive r siti es can also provide va luabl e co nsulting servic es. The
state of Delaware tapped the University of D elaware's Institute for
Public Administration t o h e lp sma ller communities develop com -
prehensive plans under the state's "Liva ble Delaware" initiative .
A common thread among smart growth organi zation s that pro-
vide cons ulting services is the abi li ty to connect core areas of
expertise, such as farm land protection or sc h ools, with related dis -
cip lines to develop compreh ensive plans for communities and
regions . Nonprofit orga ni zatio n s ca n provide services or h e lp
a community focus on key growth and planning needs prior to
hiring a consultant.
3·
Use a "kick the tires" trip to take local government officials
and residents to visit smart growth communities.
Often, loca l officia ls an d n eighborh ood activists have littl e experi-
en ce or previous exposure to smart growth. While graphi cs and
architectural renderings can give a rough picture of what projects
look like, a better way to demonstrate smart growth 's potential is
to actually walk through a traditional neighborhood development
or completed smart growth project.
The idea of taking key stakeholders to view actua l projects is not
new. The Marsh all Fund, for example, sponsors exch ange trips so
that U.S. and European delegations can view best practices in
environmental and transportation projects. A smart growth varia-
PRACTICE TIP:
The nonprofit National Charrette
Institute (NCI) was founded in
2001 to help communities develop
more livable communities through
col labo rative planning processes.
The French word "charrette"
mean s "little cart" and is used to
describe the final, intense work
effort expended by art and archi-
tecture students to meet a project
deadline. The term has now evolved
to describe a rigorous and inclusive
process that produces the strategies
and implementation documents for
complex and difficult design and
planning projects. Charrettes
include intense sessions held over
several consecutive days. The prod-
uct is a consensus plan on how a
community should develop and
grow. NCI was formed to foster
broader use of holistic, col labora-
tive planning processes in commu-
nity design. For more about NCI
and what they offer, see
http://www.charretteinstitute.org/.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
PRACTICE TIP:
In 1999, researchers from
Kalamazoo College brought a
group of community leaders from
the Kalamazoo, Mich igan, region on
a study trip to Portland, Oregon, to
study growth management policies
and issues. The trip kicked off a
year-long project called "Conven ing
Our Community" that built the
political will to solve a number of
previously intractable and con-
tentious land use issues in western
Michigan.3
tion of exchange programs is a great way to let local officials see
how density, design, and transportation all work together in cities
that have implemented smart growth. An actual project can
debunk common myths and misunderstandings about traffic,
parking, and public services. To be successful, a smart growth tour
organizer will include a presentation of supporting growth princi-
ples and policies, interviews with various stakeholders, and any
"lessons learned" to inform the planning and implementation of
similar projects.
To understand the real-world implications of smart growth, rep-
resentatives from a community do not need to travel abroad but
can find model projects in their own region. A first step in finding
these projects is to look at awards or smart growth certification
programs, such as the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA)
smart growth awards. Development organizations, such as the
Urban Land Institute and the Congress for ew Urbanism, also
sponsor awards for smart growth design and transportation. The
American Planning Association h as added a special smart growth
category to its list of annual awards.
4·
Establish context-sensitive design training courses that focus
on community-involvement strategies for traffic engineers.
Context-sensitive design (CSD) is defined as a co ll aborative,
interdisciplinary approach that involves all stakeh old ers in devel -
oping transportation facilities that support a range of community
needs. In addition to promoting safety and mobility, this approach
considers a community's scenic, aesthetic, historic, and environ-
mental resources . CSD arose from the recognition that trans-
portation systems and their facilities affect a wider area than a
road or rail line's immediate surroundings. Transportation offi-
cials also recognize that existing facilities are a prime focus for
improving communities as well as transportation networks.
However, balancing transportation and community needs is cer-
tain to pose trade-offs. Transportation engineers will find them-
selves in the unfamiliar territory of considering community build-
ing, historic preservation, and public art. Even where transporta -
tion officials are well versed in community design, they may need
help conveying transportation needs to a nontechnical audience
or in translating a wide array of transportation needs into tradi-
tionally inflexible design standards.
To ease this process, communities can develop an outreach pro-
gram that engages transportation engineers and officials with
neighborhood residents, landscape architects, and community
development representatives to develop collaborative design
strategies specifically geared to transportation facilities. The
Project for Public Spaces (PPS) in New York City has developed
an excellent three-day course on engaging communities for CSD.
For more information, see http://www.pps.org.
5·
Use quick-response teams to gain approvals for smart growth
developments.
Newspapers from around the country are filled with stories on how
cities are coming back, boosted by housing, retail, and entertain-
ment districts. However, proposing an infill or redevelopment proj-
ect can be challenging. Outdated regulations, poor maps, design
challenges, and overlapping zoning codes are some of the barriers
faced by developers who may ultimately consider greenfield devel-
opment an easier alternative . To level the development playing
field loca liti es and states have instituted multidisciplinary quick-'
response teams to help guide proposals through the application
process. To ensure that these teams don't bypass the stakeholder
involvement process, choosing a representative team is important.
Oregon's Transportation and Growth Management (TGM) pro-
gram is a joint project between the Departments of
Transportation and Land Conservation and Deve lopment. A
major component is the Quick Response Program, which
addresses community requests with planning and design services
to implement smart growth goals, plans, and projects-usually
within two weeks. In response to local requests, developers, prop-
erty owners, local/state officials, and affected stakeholders come
together to review development proposals, develop innovative
design solutions, and overcome regulatory obstacles to land use,
transportation, and design issues. The program also provides eco-
nomic and market-feasibility analysis. The state contracts with
experienced design and planning firms to deliver plans, analyses,
and recommendations for code reform.
In one example a community was dissatisfied with a redevelop-
ment plan that would create a one-story retail center with surface
parking. With the Quick Response team's assistance, and in coor-
dination with the city, the block was transformed into a mixed-use
project with street-level retail and upper-story condominiums and
townhomes with underground parking. The rear of the building
is lined with two-story townhomes, in response to the commu-
nity's concern that the project blend in with the scale of the adja-
cent historic Irvington neighborhood.4
6.
Conduct place audits to determine barriers and opportunities
for smart growth.
Many communities spend a lot of time trying to predict the
impacts of individual development projects without first under-
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS II
standing how their neighborhood works. A place, or community,
audit can help assess community functions by analyzing the com-
bination of small details that affect common concerns like traffic,
recreational space, housing, and safety. While smart-growth or
zoning-code audits focus specifically on codes and regulations, a
place audit focuses on how community assets, regulations, .and the
built environment relate to each other. A community-develop-
ment organization may want to sponsor a neighborhood audit as a
community-building activity and as a means to get neighbors
more involved in the planning process .
One type of place audit is a walking audit. Geared toward looking
at the quality of the pedestrian environment, a walking audit looks
at the details of sidewalk width, curb heights, corners, and cross -
walks. A place audit can look at these elements as well as the way
that parks, buildings, and streets are constructed within a neighbor-
hood. This helps residents understand the factors and design varia-
tions that affect traffic speeds, pedestrian safety, and design needs.
Although every place audit is a little different, each usually
includes the following key elements:
• A local presenter who describes a particular local problem
or situation
• A visual introduction to community design
• A walk in the community to identify good and bad conditions
• A discussion of people's observations on the walk
• Agreement on possible action items and/or
proposed improvements.5
A community can develop other types of neighborhood audits dur-
ing a planning process. For example, when a community is consid-
ering alternative locations for senior housing, stakeholders should
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
PRACTICE TIP :
The Baltimore Neighborhood
Indicators Alliance has used census
data and information from the city-
planning office to develop a set of
indicators around housing and com-
munity development, children's
health , safety, workforce develop-
ment, economic development, the
urban environment, transit, educa-
tion , and youth. See http://www.
bnia .org for more information .
conduct a special community audit to consider how the new resi -
dents will get around in their new neighborhood. The walk sh ould
pose questions on features that many younger community mem-
bers take for granted. Are there curb cuts? Are the signs printed
and located so that elderly persons can easi ly find their way? Are
the seryices and goods purchased by senior citizens loca ted nearby?
While audits can be devised to address an array of community
issues, their key feature is getting neighbors out to look at actua l
conditions and problems. Basing the discussion in the n eighbor-
h ood h as a way of putting aside philosophical, rhetorical, or ideo-
logical arguments in favor of a more practical, solution-based dis-
cussion. Making the physical neighborhood the context can
sometimes go a l ong way toward finding agreement among
disparate viewpoints.
7·
Develop community indicators to make sure that development
is meeting community goals.
Indicators are identifiable measures that can be used to assess
your community's health. Many financial, transportation, and
census indicators are already wide ly co ll ect ed and used by locali -
ties as benchmarks, such as income, h ome-ownership rates, and
miles of bicycle trails. However, these common measures might
not tell the entire story of how a community is reaching wider,
long-term goa ls. For example, a community might have a high
home-ownership rate, but may still be struggling to meet its
h ousing goa ls for city or service-industry employees. Using this
example, a community may want to track other housing statistics,
such as the percentage of employees who li ve outside of the juris-
diction or the percentage of apartments that have been converted
to condominiums.
Jurisdictions with such indicator projects includ e Chapel Hill,
North Carolina; Boulder County, Colorado; and Santa Barbara,
California. Each uses different types of indicators that were devel-
oped with public participation.
Indicators should come from reliable data sources, measure out -
comes, and be easily understood.
Be prepared to support your measurements with background
material and context. Tracking indicators means a community
will, at some point, likely face poor results or declines in perform-
a nc e. When developing indicators, a community should think
about the range of likely outcomes (both good and not so good),
those factors that are under its control, and the community's abil-
ity to respond and correct course. The 'objective of an indicators
project is to understand th e factors that are valuab le to the com-
munity and use the information to inform development decisions.
A wide range of stake ho ld ers should be consulted when choosing
the appropriate indicators and how those indicators are worded in
a statement. For examp le, mud and sediment washing into streams
and lakes is a common water-quality problem. The decision to
word the water-quality indicator as "sediment coming from con-
struction sites" could unfairly single out certain stakeholders (e.g.,
loca l homebuilders), while preventing the community from identi-
fying and addressing other sources of the problem.
8.
Use color-coded maps to establish a planning and zoning
framework for future planning decisions.
It may sound impossible, but several communities have boiled
down their land-use plans to one piece of paper. For stakehold er
involvement, maps can be the best way to communicate informa-
tion to people with diverse backgrounds and technical abilities.
Graphics or color-coded maps can serve as the single reference
for all of the stakeholders involved .
Planning is a complex process that typically results in at least one
large document spelling out the land-use history of an area, future
trends, legal requirements, and design details . As useful as these
documents are, they tend to be ineffective when a quick reference
or succinct planning statement is needed. That's when maps can
be incredibly useful in spelling out planning areas, current zon-
ing, or a visual representation of completed projects. Maps are
also extremely useful for depicting where a community wishes to
direct development or, conversely, for pinpointing which areas are
designated for low-density or open space.
Arlington County, Virginia, outside Washington, D .C., developed
a general land use plan (GLUP) in the 1960s as its Metro rail sta-
tions were being planned. The county wanted to achieve two goals
at once: direct high-density development to transit corridors and
preserve older, lower-density neighborhoods. To get citizen
approval for the high-density development, the county instituted
"bull's-eye" zoning to taper densities down toward the neighbor-
hoods. It also drew boundaries to separate the older neighbor-
hoods from the denser redevelopment areas . The resulting GLUP
map, superimposed over the county's street network, shows this
planning nicely. Footnotes in the plan are used to denote future
planning exercises, special exceptions, and other details.
In Austin, Texas, stakeholders developed a similar but slightly dif-
ferent strategy using what they call a future land use map
(FLUM) to guide future development decisions . The FLUM is
developed during the neighborhood-planning process.
Participants first look at a map showing current uses, current zon-
ing, and the neighborhood's boundary lines. They then think
ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY ANO STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS Iii
about what they would like to see in the future within the com-
munity boundaries. The city then overlays the zoning map with
the FLUM to demarcate where zoning changes, community
investments, or other process changes will be required.6
9 ·
Illustrate complex concepts with photographs and imagery.
For community members getting involved in the zoning and
planning process, thick zoning documents complete with refer-
ences of floor-area ratios and massing requirements are not the
best materials to initiate stakeholder involvement sessions. Even
when the documents are condensed, complicated planning and
zoning materials, confusing legal language, and footnotes can be a
barrier to achieving broad public participation. This is where a
visual representation of complex concepts can be helpful.
For instance, typical zoning specifies different land uses, such as
residential, commercial, or institutional, and allowable densities.
For example, an "R-2" category might be two houses per acre,
while "R-6" establishes six residential units on an acre . Those six
units might be single-family homes or attached units. Several pic-
tures can illustrate variations of how the units can be arranged on
an acre and can give better information on some of the trade-offs
of open space, tapering, and height.
Another innovative way to use imagery is to compare pictures of
stakeholders' favorite places agllinst a particular zoning code. For
example, residents who are opposed to eight residential units per
acre may be surprised to find that Cape Cod, Massachusetts;
Charleston, South Carolina; or even their local downtown are
built according to densities that are eight units (or more) to an
acre. The pitfall associated with this approach is that much of
what people react to in pictures is the design of the development
m GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
(as opposed to the number of units per acre). Yet this approach
can help to quell fears and stereotypes about higher densities.
In developing pictures or choosing photographs, you should make
sure to emphasize that the depictions are only examples of possi-
ble scenarios. If the depictions are included as part of a form -
based zoning code, a developer may think he or she is bound by
the visual code to duplicate the exact house or plan, when your
intention is focused on general features. (For more information
on pattern books, see Principle 9, Policy 3 .)
IO.
Create and distribute free videos to illustrate local planning
goals.
Technology and computer-assisted tools to communicate plan-
ning options and decisions are expanding. For example, the city of
San Jose, located in California's Silicon Valley, has developed a
sophisticated computer-assisted design system that allows archi -
tects, planners, and local government officials to change drawings,
add landscaping, and modify building types on a computer screen
in front of hundreds of people.
While not every locality has the resources or expertise to create
such an interactive display, even simple videos can be effective
means of illustrating smart growth plans. One cost-effective way of
creating such a tool is to enlist filmmaking students at a local high
school, community college, or university to document neighbor-
hoods and streets or to conduct resident interviews as part of a
class project. Local smart growth groups may also be willing to
custom-design a video to address local smart growth issues.
If you do not have access to local filmmakers, you can also make a
compelling case for your planning goals by purchasing videos that
have already been made. One Thousand Friends of F lorida has
reviewed many smart growth videos on its Web site, which also
provides a short review of the contents of each video and the nec-
essary ordering information.7 Other nonprofit organizations,
including the Local Government Commission and American
Planning Association, have bookstores that provide videos for free
or at little cost.
An outreach and distribution plan for the video is as important as
its contents. Have videos translated if you need to reach out to
diverse communities . While loca l libraries and schools are natural
places to show and distribute the videos, video stores, movie
houses, farmers markets, and neighborhood street fairs are also
possible venues. The city of Portland, Oregon, arranged to have
informational videos distributed to local video stores. If there is a
specific audience you want to reach, match the distribution plan to
the audience. For example, if your locality wants to expand bus
service, make sure that higher-density residential areas, major job
centers, and senior citizens are all involved in the process so that
the bus route selected meets the needs of both current and poten-
tial riders.
See http://washington.uli.org/sga/
See http://www.farmland.org/consulting/index.htm.
Kiran Cunningham and Hannah McKinney. Regional Community Building:
The Kalama z oo , Michigan , Experien ce. (Washington, D.C.: ICMA,
September 2001).
4 For more information about the Quick Response Program, see
http://www.lcd.state.or.us/tgmlquickresponse.htm.
See http:/ /www. walkin gin fo .org/insi gh ti fea tures_articl es/ silicon/
sil_good_audits .htm.
6 The City of Austin Texas, "Developing a Community Plan,"
http:/ /www.ci.austin .tx .us/test/zoning/ dev _np.htm.
Go to http://www. l OOOfriendsoffiorida.org/Other_Info_Sources/
Smart_ Growth_ Videos.asp.
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II 100 Policies for Implementation
State Local Mix land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive, Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage
uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland, direct variety of development community and
of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholder
building and choices a strong sense and critical toward existing choices predictable, collaboration
design of place environmental communities fair, and cost-in development
areas effective decisions
II III IV v VI VII VIII IX x
I. Mix land uses
1. 1. Adopt comprehensive plans and sub-area plans ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
that encourage a mix of land uses. -
2. Use enhanced zoning techniques to achieve a mix ./ ./ ./ ./
of land uses.
Provide regional planning grants for projects that ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ produce mixed land use.
3 .
--
4. Encourage the redevelopment of single uses into ./ ./ ./ ./
mixed-use developments. -
Accommodate the reuse of closed, decommis-./ ./ ./ ./ ./ sioned, or obsolete institutional uses.
5 .
6. Provide incentives for ground-floor retail and
upper-level re sidential uses in existing and future ./ ./ ./ ./
development. --
7. Locate neighborhood stores in re sidential areas. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ---
8. Use floating zones to plan for certain types of ./ ./ ./
undetermined uses.
Organize a variety of land uses vertically and
./ ./ horizontally. ./ ,/
9.
------
10. Develop mixed-use university districts. ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ./
II. Tal<e advantage of compact building design
1. Organize a compact development endorse ment
,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ program. --
2. Adopt a cottage housing development zoning ./ ,/ ,/ ,/
ordinance.
Use compact development coupled with onsite best
,/ ,/ ./ ,/ management practices to improve environmental
3.
outcomes. -
4. Use traditional neighborhood design. ./ ./ ,/ l ,/ ./ ,/ ,/ ,/
5. Use compact design to create more sec ure ,/ ,/ ./ ,/ ,/ ,/
neighborhoods. -
Subdivide vacant warehouse space into residential
./ ,/ ,/ ./ units. ./
6.
---~ -
7. Ensure that big box stores locating in existing
urban centers are appropriately scaled and ./ ./ designed . ./ ./ ./
8. Create compact office parks and corporate
campuses. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
Strategically reduce or remove minimum lot size ./ ./ ,/ ./ requirements.
9.
---
10. Manage the transition between higher-and ,/ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
lower-density neighborhoods.
St at e Loca l Mi x land Take Cr eat e a r ang e Create Foster di st inctive, Pre serve open Stre ngthen and Pro vide a Make En courage
use s ad vantage of hous ing walkabl e attrac ti ve spa ce, farml and , direct var ie ty of devel opment community and
of co mpa ct opportunities co mmun iti es communit ies w ith natural beau ty, development transportation de ci sions stakeholder
bui lding and choi ces a strong sense and crit ica l towa r d exi st ing ch oices predict able , co llaboration
desi gn of pl ac e environmental communitie s fair, and cos t-in deve lopment
ar eas effec tive de cis ion s
II III JV v VI VII VIII IX x
-·· 1 .... :.,. • 1..-, .• ,, ·-· tllL.,1111•1 I I I .111 1 ... I
1. Establis h an emp loyer-ass ist ed housing .I ,/ .I
prog ram.
2. Streaml ine the de velopment review process when .I ,/ ,/
units include affordable housing. --
3 . Create a regiona l program to encourage al I
communities to incl ude a fai r share of afforda bl e .I .I .I ,/ .I .I .I
and moderate-range housing.
4 . Use transpo r tation fu nds as an incentive to .I .I .I ,/ .I .I
provide hou sing near trans it.
5 . Use housing to engender 24-hour cities in .I .I .I ,/ .I .I .I .I .I .I
revita l ization plans. --------
6 . Integrate smart growth and housing programs. .I .I .I ,/ .I .I .I .I .I .I .I
7. A do pt pr operty t ax exe mption pro grams fo r .I ,/ .I .I
mixed-income developme nts and low -income
homeowners . ------------------
8 . Develop smart growth funds to promote deve lop-.I ,/ .I .I
me n! in under served comm unities.
9 . Use differen t bui lders on con t iguous blocks of land .I ,/ .I .I .I
t o ensure a diversity of housing styles .
1 0. Create a housing trust fund. .I .I ,/ .I .I
-z . m.-: 1 1111111111
1. Develop a pedestrian master plan . .I .I ,/ .I .I .I
2. Design co m muni ties so that kids ca n wa l k to .I .I .I ,/ .I .I
school.
3 . Use trees and other green infrastructure to provide .I ,/ .I .I she lter, beauty, urban heat r eduction, and separa-
tion from automob il e t ra ffic.
4. Encourage sa fe pedes t rian routes to transit. .I .I .I .I ,/ .I .I .I .I
5. Deve lop walking awareness and promotion .I ,/ .I .I .I
programs . ----
6. Use modern t echnology to increase pede strian .I .I .I
safety. -
7 . Use visua l cues and design elements to indicate .I ,/ .I
pedes trian r igh t s of way and minim ize co nfl icts.
8 . Situate parking to enhance the pedestrian environ-.I .I .I ,/ .I .I .I ment and facilitate access between destinations. -----~ -
9. Make places walkable for aging popu lations in .I .I .I ,/ .I .I .I
response t o new demog raphics and special needs.
1 0 . Retrofit superblocks and cul-de-sac street .I .I .I ,/ .I .I .I
networks.
State Local Mix land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive, Pre se rve open Streng then and Provide a Make Encourage
uses advantage of housing wa lkable attractive space , farmland, direct variety of development co mmunity and
of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholder
building and choices a strong sense and critical toward existing choices predictable, collaboration
design of place environmental communities fair, and cost-in development
areas effective decisions
JI III IV v VI VII VIII IX x
V. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place
1. Establish revolving loan funds for historic .I .I .I ,/ .I .I
preservation.
2 . Create community greens. .I .I .I ,/ .I .I .I
Turn und erused highways into boulevards . .I .I .I ,/ .I .I
>-----3.
4. Develop a comprehensive wayfinding system in .I .I ,/ .I
town centers.
-
Use distinctive public transit to increase the
,/ attractiveness of neighborhoods. .I .I .I
5.
6. Highlight cultural assets through public art and .I
event nights .
.I ,/ .I .I
I---
7. Use asset-based too ls and resident engagement to .I ,/ .I .I
reflect community values.
8. Revitalize the waterfront. .I .I .I ./ .I .I .I
9. Make retail centers distinctive and attractive .I .I .I .I .I ./
destinations.
Us e transportation enhancements funds
./ to create places of distinction. .I .I .I .I .I .I
10.
VI. Preserve open space , farmland, natural beauty , and critical environmental areas
1. Link land conser vation with other smart growth .I .I ,/ .I .I
principles.
2. Use land management techniques and acquisition .I .I ,/ .I
to protect drinking water sources.
3. Use an array of financing techniques to preserve .I .I ,/
open space. ---·
4. Establish priority-se tting criteria for open space .I .I
acquisition .
.I ./ .I .I
5. Incorporate land conse rvation into transportation .I .I .I ,/ .I .I .I
planning.
6. Take advantage of nature's ecoservices. .I .I ,/ .I -
7. Support tree preservation through public-private .I
partnerships.
.I .I ,/
8. Allow land trusts to compete for conservation
funds.
.I ,/
9. Invest in the rural economy to preserve working .I
lands .
.I .I ./ .I
10. Use innovative permitting approaches to .I .I .I .I .I ,/ .I .I
protect critical environmenta l areas.
State Local Mix land Take Create a range Create Foster distinctive, Pre serve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage
uses advantage of housing walkable attractive space, farmland , direct variety of development community and
of compact opportunities communities communi t ies with natural beauty, deve lopment transportation decisio ns stakeholder
building and choices a strong sense and critical toward existing choices predictable, collabo r ation
design of place environmental co mmunities fair, and cost-in development
areas effective decision s
II III IV v VI VII VIII IX x
-·· . .111••• I !.1.•1 ~1 1 I I •'"' 11 11••11111 1111 111
1. Encourage the creation of a bu siness improvement
district.
./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
2. Use priority fund in g areas to direct development ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
toward existing communities. - -
3. Offer home equity assurance programs. ./ ./ ./ ./
4. Establish a land bank authority. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
5. Creat e a development finance insurance program. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ --
6. Develop asset-driven market analys is to enco urage ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ commercial and retai l in vestment in underserved
communities .
7. Encourage infi ll by adopti ng innovative sto rmwater ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
regulations and practices.
8 . Increase transit-o riented development by adding
infi ll stations on existing t ransit lines and retro-./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
fitting existing stations.
9. Develop a revolving loan fund to support local
independent businesses .
./ ./ ./ ./
10. Designate a vacant-properties coordinator to use
code enforcement, provide incentives, and develop ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
partnerships to minimize and abate vacant properties.
_, ... -!.. .. 11•J111 1:.l . I • 11. .. 1 I 1 11•11111111 1
1. Create programs and policies that sup port
ca r shar ing.
./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
2 . Make sure transportation models an d surveys ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
accurately reAect a ll modes of transpo rtation.
··-t--
3 . Consu lt ear ly with eme rgency responders when ./
developing smart growth plans.
./ ./ ./
4. Change state insurance policies so that pay-as-./ ./
you-drive in surance can be implemented.
5. Cons id er transportation when developing rating ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ sys tem s for green buildings a nd programs.
-~
6 . Transform park-an d-ride lots into multiuse ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
faci lities.
7 . Integrate goods movement and delivery into ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
smart growth.
8 . Provide riders with customized transit ./ ./ ./ ./
information.
9. Create comprehensive bicycling programs. ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./
10. Introduce value pricing. ./ ./ ./
State Local Mix land Take Create a range Create Fo ster distinctive, Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a Make Encourage
uses advantage of housing wa lkable attractive spa ce, farmland , direct variety of development co mmunity and
of compact opportunities communities communities with natural beauty, development transportation decisions stakeholder
building and choices a strong sense and critical to ward existing choices predictable, collaboration
design of place environmental comm unities fair, and cost-in development
areas effective decisions
II III IV v VI VII VIII IX x -,1r111~11:l •1• I 11111 •111 •1 • I ...... .. l••IL.,
1. Educate elected leaders and public offic ials about ./ smart growth. ./ ./ ./
2. Direct development along corridors to ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ .I
create stronger districts. --
3. Create pattern books to streamline construction ./ ./ ./ .I ./
and enhance project marketability.
4. Make zoning codes and other land development
regulations simple to use and easy ./ ./ ./ .I ./
to read.
5. Create a multimunicipal planning strategy to pro-./ ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ .I vide for development in rural markets while main -
taining rural character.
6 . Establish a state-or regional-level "smart growth ./ ./ ./ ./ cabinet.11
7 . Create an "incentives expert" for developers and
businesses when an area has been designated for ./ .I ./
developmenVredevelopment.
8. Implement geographic information sys tem-based
planning into the development process . ./ ./ .I ./
9. Streamline brownfield redevelopm ent approval ./ ./ ./ .I
processes.
10. Create investment funds for smart growth projects . ./ ./ ./ ./ .I
1 111,-; •• I "" I 1:..111111 . :......-,11F,11 1li.t;ll 111•11•11:...•1:...11 11111:..11•1 . '~' I
1. Use third-pa rty groups to make sure a range of ./ ./ ./ .I
st akeho lder views is expressed. -- ---- - -
2. Use nonprofit groups as smart growth consu ltants. ./ ./ ./ .I
-
3 . Use a "kick the tires" trip to take local govern -
ment officials and residents to visit smart growth ./ .I communities.
4. Establish context-sensitive design training courses
that focus on community-involvement strategies ./ ./ ./ ./ ./ .I
for traffic engineers .
5 . Use quick-response teams to gain approva ls for ./ ./ smart growth developments. ./ .I
6. Conduct place audits to determine barriers and ./ ./ ./
opportunities for smart growth.
7. Develop community indicators to make sure that ./ ./ .I
development is meeting community goals . --r--
8. Use color-coded maps to establish a planning and ./ ./ .I zoning framework for future planning decisions.
9 . Illustrate comp le x concepts with photographs ./ ./ ./ .I and imagery. ---
10. Create and distribute free videos to ii lustrate local ./ ./ .I
planning goals .
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
Directory of Smart Growth Funders and Lending Institutions
The Acushnet Foundation
c/o Seamark Fin. Svcs.
P.O. Box 1498
Mattapoisett, MA 02739
(508) 758-6159
Contact : William Blasdale
Giving generally limited to the greater New Bedford, MA,
area funding building/renovation projects that support chil-
dren, human services, health, and hi storic preservation .
Adirondack Community Trust
105 Saranac Av e.
Lake Placid, NY 12946
(518) 523-9904
Contact: Cali Broo ks, Exec. Dir.
info@generousact.org
http://www.generousact.org
Giving focused in the Adirondack region of NY funding build -
ing/renovation projects th at support community development,
health care, and historic preservation.
Allegheny Foundation
301 Grant St., Ste. 3900
Pittsburgh, PA 15219-6401
(412) 392-2900
Contact: Exec. Dir.
http://www.scaife.com
Giving primarily in western PA , with emphasis on Pittsburgh
focusing on community development, youth development, and
historic pre se rvation .
Bank of America
315 Montgomery St.
San Francisco, CA 94104-1866
(404) 607-4173
Contact : Candace C Skarlatos, SVP, Outreach Specialist; or
Randy Muller (environmental projects)
http://www.bankofamerica .com/environmenUindex.cfm?
Menu_Sel=public&oth=smartgrowth
http ://www. ban kof america. com/envi ronmenUi ndex .cfm?
template=env_comm_outreach
Lending for smart growth redevelopment, infill projects, and
mixed-use.
Bank of America
10 Light St., 19th Floor
MD4-302-19-02
Baltimore, MD 21 201
(888) 488-9802
$350 Billion Commitment
http://www.bankofamerica.com/community/index.cfm?
temp late=cdb_threefiftybi 11 ion
State-by-state funding :
http://www.bankofam erica.com/community/index .cfm ?
template=cdb_localefforts
Bank of America , Community Development Bank ing
600 Peachtree St., 14th Floor
Atlanta, GA 30308
(404) 607 -6245
Contact: Ms. Laura Keenan, GA Development Manager
!aura.keenan@bankofamerica .com
Develops and finances affordable housing in metro Atlanta:
http ://www.ch rcatl an ta. org/d i rectry/BA C DC. htm
Bank of New York , NY
One Wall Street
New York, New York 10286
(2 12) 635-7714
Community development lending:
http ://www.bankofny.com/page s/acdb.htm
Bank One
1 Bank One Plaza
Chicago, IL 60670
(877) 226-5663
Economic empowerment:
http://www.bankone.com/answers/BolAnswersDetail.aspx?top
=al I &segment=A BO&top ic=CorporateContributions. What We
Fund&item=EconomicEmpowerment
Bay Area Community Foundation
703 Washington Av enue
Bay City, MI 48708-5 717
(989) 893-4438
Contact: Roger Merrifield, C.E.O .
(800) 926-3217
bacfnd@bayfoundation .org
http ://www.bayfoundation.org/comminit.html
Giving limited to Bay and Arenac counties, MI, focusing on
investments that enhance and sustain the Bay Area
Community.
Norwin S. and Elizabeth N. Bean Foundation
c/o New Hamp shire Charitable Foundation
37 Pleasant St. Concord, NH 03301-4005
(603) 225-6641
Contact: Nike F. Speltz, Senior Program Office
Giving limited to Amherst and Manchester, NH, focusing on
building/renovat ing to provide low-income hou si ng .
J
Bernstein Family Foundation
(formerly Leo M. Bernstein Family Foundation )
3299 K St., N.W., Ste. 700
Washington, DC 20007
(202) 965-0737
Contact: Ami Ann Becker, Exec. V. P. and Managing Dir.
Giving limited to charitable organizations located in or serv-
ing areas within a 100-mile radius of Washington, DC , focus -
ing on community development and housing.
Broadway Federal Bank , CA
Community Development Account Representative
4800 Wilshire Blvd.
Los Angeles , CA 90010
(866) 883-0283
Contact: Eric Johnson
Community Development Accounts serving South Central
Los Angeles
http://www.broadwayfed.com/communit.htm
Annie E. Casey Foundation
701 St. Paul St.
Baltimore, MD 21202
(410) 547-6600
Funds projects that enhance troubled neighborhoods .
Family Economic Success: Provides funding for housing and
business development in distressed communities.
http ://www.aecf.org/initiatives/fes/fes/investments.htm
Citigroup
850 Third Ave ., 13th Floor
New York, NY 10022
(212) 559-9007
Contact: Kim Latimer-Nelligan, Citigroup CCDE
Center for Community Development Enterpri se
http ://www.c itigroup. comic itig roup/c iti ze n/comm u n ity/data/O 2
ccde.pdf
Community Development mission:
http://www.citigroup.com/citigroup/citizen/community/index .htm
APPENDIX B: DIRECTORY OF SMART GROWTH FUNDERS AND LENDING INSTITUTIONS II
City National Bank , CA
City National Corporation
City National Center
400 North Roxbury Dr.
Beverly Hills, CA 90210
(800) 773-7100
Economic development and affordable housing:
http ://www.c ityntl .co m/i nfoce nter/com mun ity/
DTE Energy Foundation
(formerly Detroit Edison Foundation )
2000 2nd Ave., Rm.1 046 WCB
Detroit, MI 48226-1279
(313) 235-9416
Contact: Karla Hal I, Secy.
http://www.dteenergy.com/community/foundation/index.html
Funds projects that understand the connec tion between envi-
ronmental protection and sustainable development, focusing
on brownfield redevelopment, commercial development, and
affordab le housing; covers pre-development costs associated
with environmental assessment and cleanup. Funds primarily
SE Michigan.
DuPage Community Foundation
110 N. Cross St.
Wheaton , IL 60187-5318
(630) 665-5556
Contact: David M. McGowan, Exec. Dir.
http://www.dcfdn.org
Giving primarily in IL for building/renovation supporting com-
munity development, the environment, and health care.
J. Tom Eady Charitable Trust
c/o Corsicana National Bank & Trust
P.O. Box 624
Corsicana, TX 75151
(903) 654 -4500
Contact: Le s Leskoven , Sr. V. P. and Trust Off.
Giving primarily in Navarro County, TX, funding construc-
tion/renovation projects supporting community development
and human services.
Federal Home Loan Bank of Cincinnati , OH
221 East 4th St.
1000 Atrium Two
Cinci nnati , OH 45202
(513) 852-76 15
Contact: Carol M. Peterson, Senior Vice President and
Community Investment Officer
Affordable hou sing program:
http://www.fhlbcin.com/05_Aff Hou Pro.asp
First Tennessee Bank, TN
F irst Tennessee Housing Corporation
P.O. Box 84, 10th Floor
Memphis, TN 38101
(901) 523-4444
First Tennessee Hou sing Corporation
http ://www. fi rstten nessee. co m/ft_ docs/cf m/2 co I. cfm? se ti on=
company_information&menu=comp_info_housing_corp&
body=housing _corporation
Fleet Boston
1 00 Federal St., 10034F
Boston, MA 02110
(6 17) 434-2200
Community Investment Group:
http://www.fteet.com/about_cig_overview.asp
Neighborhood revitalization across the Northeast:
http://www.fteet.com/communityreport/2002/economic.html
Community Partnerships in Massachusetts:
http://www.fte et.com/communityreport/2002/pdfs/Comm
InsertMA.pdf
Community Partnerships in New Jersey :
http ://www.fteet.com/communityreport/2002/pdfs/Comm
InsertNJ.pdf
Ford Foundation
320 Ea st 43rd St .
New York, NY 10017 USA
(2 1 2) 573 -5000
Community Development:
http://www.fordfound.org/program/asset_units.cfm?unit_name
=community_development
II GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
The Foundation Center
http://www.foundationcenter.org
Lists information on over 70,000 grants and provides
valuab le information to assist grant applications . A pa id
subscription allows you to access everything online or go to a
Cooperating Collection, available in all 50 states, to access
grant information for free.
http ://www. fou ndat ioncenter. o rg/co 11 ect ions/index. htm I; jses-
si onid= V 3 W NG FM RSWKR2 P5QALRSGW15AAAACI2 F
Mertz Gilmore Foundation
2 1 8 East 1 8th St.
New York , NY 10003-3694
(212) 475-1137
Contact : Bethany Wall , Program Officer
bwal l@mertzgi I more .org
Funds historic preservation , community development, and
planning in low-income neighborhoods in NYC:
http://www.mertzg i lmore.org/www/default2.asp?section=nyc
The James Irvine Foundation
One Market, Steuart Tower, Suite 2500
San Francisco, CA 941 05
(4 15) 777 -2244
http://www.irvine.org/frameset16 .htm
Supports demonstration projects in California that promote
sustainable patterns of land use, revitalize urban areas, and
conserve land.
JSJ Foundation
700 Robbins Rd.
Grand Haven, MI 4941 7-265 1
(616) 842-6350
Contact: Lynne Sherwood, Secy.-Treas.
http://www.jsjcorp.com.
Giving primarily in areas of company operations in FL, MI,
T X, and WI funding construction/renovation projects focusing
on social services and health .
Junior Hospitality Club
P.O. Box 20393
Oklahoma City, OK 73156-0393
(405) 840-9978
Contact: Mary Tyson , Projects Chair.
Giving primarily in Oklahoma County, 01<, funding renovation/
construction projects that support community development.
Living Cities: The National Community Development
Initiative
330 West 108th Street
New York, New York 10025
(2 1 2) 663.2078
Partnership of foundations, financ ial institutions, non-profits,
and the federal government funding C DCs .
http ://www.I ivingcities.org/
Louisville Community Development Bank, KY
Louisville Real Estate Development Company
290 1 West Broadway
Louisville, KY 40211
(502 ) 778-7000
Louisville Real Estate Development Company:
http ://www.moret hanabank.com/lredc.ht m
Lyndhurst Foundation
517 East Fifth St.
Chattanooga, T N 37403-1826
(423) 756-0767
Affordable housing , urban planning, and revitalization
in Tennessee:
http ://www. lyndh u rstfo u ndation . o rg/prio ritf. htm I
John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
140 S. Dearborn St.
Ch icago, I L 60603-5285
(3 1 2) 726-8 000
Loans and grants to support low-income housing preservation:
http://www.macfound.org/programs/pri/affordable_hou si ng .h tm
The McKnight Foundation
710 Second St. S. Ste. 400
Minneapolis, MN 55401
(6 12) 333-4220
Contact: Rip Rapson , President
i nfo@mcknight.org
http://www.mcknight.org
Limited to MN , providing grants for projects that encourage
developments that create more livable sustainable communi-
ties, foster economic development, increa se affordable hous-
ing, preserve open space and provide transportation options.
http ://www. me knight. o rg/cfc/regio n. asp
Living Twin Cities: Encourages smarter growth and tries to
diminish the harm caused by unmanage d growth to create a
vibrant metropolitan region. http ://www.mck night.org/environ-
ment/I iving .asp
Merrill Lynch
California Partnership for Economic Achievement
4695 MacArthur Court, Suite 1540
Newport Beach , CA 92660
(949) 223-6281
Contact: Cathy Paredes , Community Development Manager
California Partnership for Economic Achievement
http://www.californ ia partnership.ml.com
http://www.californiapartnership.ml.com/pdf/april2003
announcement.pdf
J.P. Morgan Chase & Company
270 Park Ave.
New York, NY 10017-2070
(585) 258-5454
Contact: Edward Sigler, Real Estate Lending Department
Commercial lendin g and investing:
http://www.jpmorganchase.com/cm/cs?pagename=Chase/H ref
&urlname=jpmc/community/cdg/clu/overview
Grants for housing and economic development:
http ://www.j pmo rganchase .com/cm/cs? pagename=C hase/ H ref
&urlname =jpmc/community/grants
Supporting homeownership opportunities:
http ://www.j pmo rganchase .comic mies? pagename=C hase/ H ref
&urlname=jpmc/communi t y/cdg/rlu
Supporting the revitalization of low-and moderate-income
communities:
http ://www.jpmorganchase.com/cm/cs?pagename =Chase/H ref
&urlname=jpmc/community/cdg/rel
National Community Reinvestment Coalition
733 15th Street, NW, Ste. 540
Washington , D.C. 20005
(202) 628-8866
http://www.ncrc.org
For a list of banks participating in sub-pr im e lending.
The Parodneck Foundation for Self-Help, Housing &
Community Development , Inc .
(formerly The Consumer-Farmer Foundation , Inc. l
1 21 6th Ave., Ste. 5 0 1
New York, NY 1 0013
(212) 431 -9700
Contact: Harold DeRienzo, Pres.
Giving limited to New York, NY, focusing on low-income hous-
ing, planning, and community development wi th emphasis on
senior citizens.
APPENDIX B: DIRECTORY OF SMART GROWTH FUNDERS AND LENDING INSTITUTIONS II
PNC Bank
One PNC Plaza, 29th Floor
249 Fifth Av e.
Pittsburgh, PA 15222
Contact: Mia Hallett, Vice President and Manager
PNC Foundation
Foundations@pncbank.com
Community development funding:
http ://www.pnc .com/aboutus/charitablecontri butions. htm I #cdv
The Schumann Fund for New Jersey, Inc.
2 1 Van Vleck St.
Montclair, NJ 07 042
973) 509-9883
Contact: Barbara Reisman , Exec . Dir.
http ://fd ncenter. org/g rantmaker/sch umann/
Supports coordinated land use planning and funds brownfield
redevelopment primarily in New Jersey.
Seedco and Non -Profit Assistance Corporation
915 Broadway, Ste. 1703
New York, NY 1 00 1 0
(2 1 2) 473-0255
Contact: William J. Grinker, Pres .
http://www.seedco.org
Supports lo w-income revitalization projects focusing on hous-
ing and economic development.
Shorebank
7054 S. Jeffery Boul evard
Chicago, IL 60649
realestate@sbk .com
(773) 420-4824
Contact: Jack Crane
Green historic rehabilitation in Ohio:
http ://www.c I eve I andgbc. o rg/cec/
Financing focused on rehab ilitation and multi-family
residential:
http://www.sbk .com/I iv es ite/rea I estate/ re a I estate .asp
City of Cleveland , Neighborhood Revitalization Initiative:
http://www.shorebankcleveland.com/real_estate/
Silicon Valley Bank, CA
3003 Tasman Dr.
Santa Clara, CA 95054
(415) 344-6223
Contact : Christine Carr, Senior Relationship Manager,
Community Development Finance
ccarr@svbank.com
Community development finance:
http://www.svb.com/bus_serv/lending/cdf.html
Sovereign Bank, PA
C RA Communi t y Development Office
Mail Code : 10-6438-C DB
P.O . Box 1 2646
601 Penn St.
Reading, PA 1960 1
(877) 768-9121
Community Development
http ://www.sovereignbank.com/companyinfo/comdev.asp
Morgan Stanley
Community Affairs
1601 B roadway, 12th F loor
New York, NY 10019
(2 1 2) 259-1235
Community Development Giving:
http ://a992. g. akamai . net/7 /992/77O/d9a18c587 ddb 79/www.
morganstan ley.com/abo ut/i nside/charitab I e_ann ua 12 00 2. pdf
SunTrust
Mail Code HDQ 4109
P.O. Box 85024
Richmond, VA 23285-5024
(800) 279-4824
SunTrust Community Development Corporation
http ://www.suntrust.co ml comm on/ AboutST /diversity/
community _diversity _efforts .asp
SunTrust and the Florida Community Loan Fund
http ://www. fc If. org/fiori daS o I ut ions! nvesto r Stories. cfm
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
Surdna Foundation
330 Madison Ave., 30th Floor
New York, NY 10017
(212) 557 -0010
http://www.surdna.org/programs/environment.html
Smart growth development, transportation and urban/subur-
ban land use issues.
Turner Foundation, Inc .
One CNN Center
Suite 1090 South Tower
Atlanta, GA 30303
(404) 681-9900
http ://www. tu rnerfo u ndation. o rg/g rants/pa.asp
Funds air quality, energy, and transportation policies that sup-
port sustainable land use.
U.S. Bancorp
U.S. Bancorp Center
800 Nicollet Mall
Minneapolis, MN 55402
Community development: http://www.usbank.com/about/com-
munity_relations/community_invest.html
Wachovia
565 5th Ave.
New York, NY
(212) 983-0651
Contact : Jane Henderson, Senior Vice President
Director of Community Development
contact.community@wachovia.com
Statewide initiatives :
http://www.wachovia.com/inside/page/011 139 _ 413_ 424, 00.htm I
Wachovia Foundation:
http://www.wachovia.com/inside/page/011 139 _ 414_ 4 30, 00.htm I
Affordable housing initiatives:
http ://www.wachovia.com/inside/page/0 11 139_ 413_ 419_ 428,
00.html
Wells Fargo
Wells Fargo Housing Foundation
6th and Marquette, Suite 1900
Minneapolis, MN 55479
(612) 667-2146
Local initiatives:
http ://www. wel I sf argo .co m/about/charitab le/index .j htm I
Wells Fargo Housing Foundation, homeownership for low-
income families:
http ://www. wel lsf argo.com/about/wfhf _oview.j htm I
Ill GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Ill
• GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II
List of Acronyms
ARC -Atlanta Regional Commjssion
BID -business improvement district
BMP -best management practice
C/CAG -City/County Association of Governments of
San Mateo County
CDC -Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CHA -Crucago Housing Authority
CHD -cottage housing development
COAH -Council on Affordable Housing
COG -council of governments
CPTED -crime prevention through environmental design
CSD -context-sensitive design
CTN -Community Transit Network
DFI -development finance insurance
D OT-Department of Transportation
EPA -Environmental Protection Agency
HEAP -home eqllity assurance program
HUD -Department of Housing and Urban Development
GIS -geograpruc information systems
LBA -land bank authority
LCI -Livable Centers Initiative
LEED -Leadersrup in Energy and Environmental Design
M-NCPPC -Maryland-National Capital Park and
Planning Commission
MPO -metropolitan plannillg organization
NJHT -New Jersey Historic Trust
PFA-priority funding area
PUD -planned unit development
RAHS -Regional Affordable Housing Strategy
RLF -revolving loan fund
SMART -safe, mixed income, access ibl e, reasonably priced,
and transit-oriented
SNAP -Strategic Neighborhood Action Plan
TCRPC -Treasure Coast Regional Planning Council
TE -transportation enhancements
TND -traditional neighborhood design
TOD -transit-oriented development
VCP -vo luntary cleanup program
voe -volatile orgaruc compounds
...