Loading...
HomeMy WebLinkAbout7 Wetlands COE Mitigationfn,tj-Su~~ p~~ ..-P~~~ we,tf~ ~~O'h ~ ~col05lt .__ -. r~A t:<. ~ ~c..(_ ~C.. • " loeaJ.. ~ t fta a ( ( b-f r:;:;, 14-tp,., µ,vJ ~ ~~;j~ ~ c.,...t f s~o sc-(~ <.>t . . ~Ar-f ~ t-:r.~~ l.tA.i.h . _ V1lll<~4~ ~;,;. . v:;;:t;;;~ oAcfi~ ~~l'")~ flv.r.+..,.. ~• r ,,.-J__ l,... \,-r . __., ,~' - '·· -.. • . / I .. ., ,... '' I• {, ... ;, .. ~." ... ~ '. J ' ·~,. _; "--'··'J<-. . ' , . \. :. . ~ ( ' :..: ....... . }~_-\, . ,_ •. ·--~-. ,_, . .,,, ,. J ·-..... Ecological Restoration of Wetland and Riparian Systems RLEM489 Room 317 ANIN MW 10:20-11:10 **Lab F 10:20-12:10 In structor: Dr. Georgianne W . Moore, Ass istant Professor D ept. Rangeland Ecology and Management 325 Animal Industries Build ing Phone: 845 -3765 gwmoore @tamu.edu Office hours: MW 11 :10 -1 2 :00 Website: http :! /rangeland. tamu.edu/people/ gmoore/ Prerequisites: Junior or sen ior stand in g; RENR 205 and WFSC 428 (or equivalent- contact instructor if you have questions) Course Goal: Students in rangeland and other natural resources disciplines wi ll relate an understanding of wetland and riparian ecology to evaluate stream and wetland health and to make informed management decisions that imp act water resources. Course Objectives: • Students w ill deconstruct how wetlands and riparian zones link terrestrial and aquatic systems • Students wi ll translate best management practices for water resources • Students w ill interpret restoration from a watershed standpo int based on an understandi ng of eco log ical principles • Students w ill identify problems specific to Texas rangelands • Students wi ll gain a global perspective on the role of wetlands in the hydro logic cycle and climate Required Reading : Textbook : We tlands 3 rd E d . Mitsch and Gosse link (2000) Student Evaluations: Homework Assignments Fie ld Trip R eport Midterm Exam Final Exam Class Parti cipation & Quizzes TOTAL: Points 2 0 15 25 30 10 100 % **Labs and Field Trip: Labs wi ll not meet every Friday (see schedul e). During week 9, there will be an overnight field trip and outdoor la boratory. Participation is mandatory . D eta il s wi ll be forthcoming. If unavoidable conflicts arise, a lt ernat ive independent work may be substituted , as determined by the instructor (see Stud ent Rules #7 on attendance). • -( . . RLEM 489 SCHEDULE -Fall 2006 Week of Sub.iect Meets Reading Events Aug 28 Introduction to wetland and riparian MWF Ch.1 -4 Lab Meets ecological restoration; Texas and global issues and perspectives on restoration Sept 4 Restoring the hydrologic cycle; MW Ch.5 linkages between hydrological and ecological processes in flowing systems Sept 11 Plant adaptations; plant succession-MW Ch.7 HWl due restoration relationships; phreatophytes Sept 18 Landscape overview; How the River MWF Ch .15 Lab Meets Continuum Concept applies to restoration; linkages between terrestrial and aquatic systems; Roads 1 Sept 25 Restoring geomorphology; flow and MW Ch.15 HW2 due flood regulation by wetlands and riparian areas; dam removal Oct 2 Role of disturbance: fire, flood, MW MIDTERM grazing, drought; MIDTERM EXAM Oct4 Oct 9 Removing invasive species; how to MW assess health Oct 16 Improving water quality; Sediments MWF Ch .6 Field Tripl and erosion control; Roads2 Half-day Oct 23 Soils as critical component to MW Ch.6, 9 Field Trip2 restoration; Riparian biogeochemistry; Th-Sat Oct 26-29 Issues in tidal systems Oct 30 Swamps; Restoration in an urban MW Ch.6, 14 Report due environment; Nutrients and pesticides - sources and sinks; Stream temperature Nov6 Restoring severely degraded systems; MWF Ch.16 Field trip3 Remediation Half-day Nov 13 Ecological restoration and remediation MW Ch.17, 19 HW3 due case studies Nov20 Best management practices; regulations M Ch. 19 Nov 27 Graduate Student Presentations MW Ch.18 Dec4 Global perspectives revisited; Exam MT FINAL* Review; Final Exam Dec 5 *Final Exam date changed from regular schedule. Subject to student approval. Ecological Restoration of Wetland and Riparian Systems RLEM689 Room 317 ANIN MW 10:20-11:10 **Lab F 10:20-12:10 Instructor: Dr. Georgianne W. Moore, Assistant Professor Dept. Rangeland Ecology and Management 325 Animal Industries Building Phone: 845-3765 gwmoore@ tamu.edu Office hours: MW 11:10-12:00 Website: http ://rangeland.tamu.edu/people/gmoore/ Course Goal: Students in rangeland and other natural re s ources disciplines will relate an understanding of wetland and riparian ecology to evaluate stream and wetland health and to make informed management decision s that impact water resources . Course Objectives: • Students wi ll deconstruct how wetlands and riparian zones link terrestrial and aquatic systems • Students will translate be st management practice s for water re s ources • Students will interpret restoration from a watershed standpoint based on an understanding of ecological principles • Students will identify problems specific to Texas rangelands • Students will gain a global perspective on the role of wetlands in the hydro logic cycle and climate Required Reading: Textbook: Wetlands 3rd Ed. Mitsch and Gosselink (2000) Student Evaluations: Homework Assignments Field Trip Report Case Study Report Midterm Exam Final Exam Class Participation & Quizzes TOTAL: Points 10 10 15 25 30 10 100% **Labs and Field Trip: Labs will not meet every Friday (see schedule). During week 9, there will be an overnight field trip and outdoor lab oratory . Participation is mandatory . Details will be forthcoming. If unavoidable conflicts arise, alternative independent work may be substituted, as determined by the instructor (see Student Rules #7 on attendance). RLEM 689 SCHEDULE-Fall 2006 Week of Subject Meets Reading Events Aug 28 Introduction to wetland and riparian MWF Ch.1-4 Lab Meets ecological restoration ; Texas and global issues and perspectives on restoration Sept4 Restoring the hydrologic cycle; MW Ch.5 linkages between hydrological and ecological processes in flowing systems Sept 11 Plant adaptations; plant succession-MW Ch.7 HWl due restoration relationships; phreatophytes Sept 18 Landscape overview; How the River MWF Ch .15 Lab Meets Continuum Concept applies to restoration; linkages between terrestrial and aquatic systems; Roadsl Sept 25 Restoring geomorphology; flow and MW Ch.15 HW2 due flood regulation by wetlands and riparian areas; dam removal Oct 2 Role of disturbance: fire, flood, MW MIDTERM grazing, drought; MIDTERM EXAM Oct 4 Oct 9 Removing invasive species ; how to MW assess health Oct 16 Improving water quality; Sediments MWF Ch.6 Field Tripl and erosion control; Roads2 Half-day Oct 23 Soils as critical component to MW Ch .6, 9 Field Trip2 restoration; Riparian biogeochemistry; Th-Sat Oct 26-29 Issues in tidal systems Oct 30 Swamps ; Restoration in an urban MW Ch .6, 14 Report due environment ; Nutrients and pesticides - sources and sinks; Stream temperature Nov6 Restoring severely degraded systems; MWF Ch.16 Field trip3 Remediation Half-day Nov 13 Ecological restoration and remediation MW Ch.17 , 19 HW3 due case studies Nov20 Best management practices ; regulations M Ch. 19 Nov27 Graduate Student Presentations MW Ch.18 Dec 4 Global perspectives revisited; Exam MT FINAL* Review ; Final Exam Dec 5 *Final Exam date changed from regular schedule. Subject to student appro val. Teaching Page 1 of 4 Teaching Program Ecological Restoration of Wetland and Riparian Systems --RLt:M 489/689 Ecological Restorati on in The_Qfy and Practice --RLEM 489_ Spring 2006 Joint Departmental Seminar Series SRecial Topics in Ecological Restoration -- RLEM 68~ Range Toastmasters Teaching Philosophy Ecological Restoration of Wetland and Riparian Systems --RLEM 489/689 Instructor: Dr. Georgianne Moore Taught Fall Semester (3 semester credits-2 lecture , 2 lab) Designed to enhance a wide-ranging student audience with interests relevant to wetlands and riparian zones. Required for undergraduate degree in Ecological Restoration . Graduate students gain opportunities to mentor undergraduates via independent case study projects. ...._..-.._....--=-- Theme: Uplands to Lowlands: A watershed approach to wetland/riparian ecology and management • Fluxes of energy and matter from uplands to lowlands • Geomorphological and physiological processes • Wetland vegetation composition, disturbance , and ~~~~~~-~ success10n • How riparian management affects water quality and quantity • Case studies for restoration Course Objectives: • Students will deconstruct how wetlands and riparian zones link terrestrial and aquatic systems • Students will translate best management practices for water resources • Students will interpret restoration from a watershed standpoint based on an understanding of ecological principles httn: //nm !!el and_ tamu.edu/neonle/ !mloore/Teaching.html 6/19/2008 Teaching Page 2of4 • Stud ents w ill identify pro bl em s specifi c to Texas ra n geland s • Stud ents w ill gai n a glob al p er sp ective on th e ro le of wetl ands in th e h ydro logic cycle and cl im ate Undergraduate SyJ /abus Graduate Syllabus Ecological Restoration in Theory and Practice --RLEM 489 Instructors: Dr. Georgianne Moore and Dr. William_Ro i2"""--~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Taught Spring Semester NEW! Spring 2007! (3 semester credit hours -lecture course) Designed as a capstone course for the Ecological Restoration degree program. Interested students outside the ER program are also encouraged to take this course if they have taken senior-level ecology courses . This course also fulfills university (W) writing requirements . Theme: Applying Current Restoration Ecology Principles to Ecological Restoration Practice Course Objectives: • Students w ill re l ate th em es in Eco l ogica l R estorati on with th eir origin s in Res toration Eco logy • Students wi ll ex tend key co n cepts to so lve new an d unique land management problems • Students will effectively communicate complex aca demic co n cepts to real-world management iss u es via written and oral pr esentati o n and small gro u p discu ssion Contact Instructor for Syllabu s Spring 2006 Joint Departmental Seminar Series Faculty organizer : Dr. Georgianne Moore Spring 2006 -Theme : Ecological Restoration The first-ever joint departmental seminar series between Rangeland Ecology & Management and Forest Science Click HERE for speaker line-up Special Topics in Ecological Restoration --RLEM 689 Instructors: Dr. Georgianne Moore Graduate students in rangeland and other natural resources disciplines will meet weekly for an hour to discuss papers that are httn · //r ::m uP.l ::inn . tamu .edu/n eo nl e/ ([IIlOOre/Teach ing.html 6/19/200 8 Teaching P age 3of 4 broadly related to the course topic. O lder relevant papers have resulted in significant shifts in thinking; whereas , new papers represent the most recent innovations in the field. Faculty and non-registered students will be welcome to participate fully . C ourse Objectives: • Stud ents w ill gain a broaden ed knowledge of the li terature • Students will critiqu e (not cri ticize) research paper s • Stu dents wi ll enhan ce p rofess io nal interaction with their peer s • Students wi ll improve speaking skills among co ll eagues To inquire about upcoming course offerings , contact Georgianne Moore . Range Toastmasters Faculty Sponsor: Dr. Georgianne Moore This is a group organized by YOU for YOU! Range Toastmasters participants practice and improve p ub lic speaking skills using peer-to-peer feed b ack as a means for in creased sel f awaren ess. As a resu lt , parti cipants wi ll be better prepared for first impressions, scientific presentations , pub lic speeches, and job interviews. Desired resu lts -think on yo ur feet, eye contact , clari ty of voice, make a point, hand fidgeting , attention grab b ing , sense of timing, graphics use, umm ... , err ... , you know ... , effective teaching, what to wear, speaking too fas t/slow , do's and don 'ts, sub tl eties of MS PowerPoint, and u mm ... more! For current information , or to inquire about join i ng , contact Georgianne Moore . Teaching Philosophy An effective understanding of the sciences combines basic knowledge with integrated , cross - disciplinary synthesis of ideas and the utilization of scientific processes . A unifying goal of undergraduate sc ience courses should be to teach students how to make their own informed decisions about complex issues facing society (including managers , policy makers , etc .) based on a solid scientific foundation . Today 's scientists tack le complex issues that span multip le d isciplines and scales. We should train tomorrow 's students to "think on their feet " and be prepared to draw from a broad base of knowledge to address the multifaceted problems of t he future. Additionally , students in upper-division courses should be exposed to res earch and techniques that prepare them for the profess ions they will join. My approach to teaching is goal-based --focused on acquiring new cogn it ive sk ill s in addition to expanding knowledge . The course goals will be pe riodically revisited throughout the term to keep track of progress. Undergraduate courses should make certain that you are ready to plunge into the wo rld of independent study (Do you have all the tools?). G raduate courses littn· //nm c1f~l ~n rl . t~m11 . ecln/n eon le/ Q11100re/Teaching .html 6/19/2008 " Tea ching Page 4of 4 should provide a forum for independent study (Can you use the tools effectively?). Class time will be punctuated by periods of interactive learning. Students will learn from each other and be given opportunities to expand their knowledge through problem solving. This can take many forms: class discussions, group projects, field trips, laboratories , etc . I strongly feel that the best learning comes from hands-on and peer-to-peer interactions. Perhaps most importantly , students teach each other -arguably they will learn more from each other than from their teacher. Today 's students are faced with learning an increasingly detailed range of scientific disciplines while balancing financial , developmental, and family concerns. It is our challenge as teachers to provide students with elements necessary to succeed in their life goals. 1...ttn · //r i:m aP 1 ::mrl t ::im11 . e cln/n eon 1 e/ QlllOOre/Teaching.html 6/19/2 008 DATE: TO: CC: FROM: RE: 04/03/2001 MARKSMITII JUDITH A. DOWNS MITIGATION BANKING I spoke to Mr. Presley Hatcher with the A.any Corps of Engineers last week. He was very helpful and provided the attached mitigation banking information. Mr. Hatcher suggested that the City would be better off determining our needs and then looking at the best sites . The mitigation process is long and time consuming and may not result in a bank. It takes a minimum of one year and more than likely two to three years. An option that may be better for the City, in conjunction with the greenways program, would be joint projection mitigation, that we would do as we go. When the City had a project that would cause adverse effects to the aquatic system we could have a greenways project that we could pull off the shelf. Mr. Hatcher encouraged this as being easier and as effective, and would create "value added" by doing projects that we ought to be doing anyway. The "value added" approach works well with some ideas I had for wetland reconstruction, creation and wildlife habitat projects we could accomplish with the assistance of the University. Dr. Jon Rodiak, with A&M's landscape architecture program, has provided a proposal to utilize his graduate students in identification of projects . I have attached his proposal for our discussion. I plan to talk to the Paw Department to determine how they have established their relationship with A&M's Recreation department. Presley Hatcher a,lso suggested the following website for the Institute for Water Resources, which is the ACE's think tank, www.wrsc .asace .a.any.mil/iwr/index.htm. I didn't download their information as it is quite lengthy. July 1992 NATIONAL WETLAND MITIGATION BANKING STUDY Wetlands Mitigation Banking Concepts Institute for Water Resources Water Resources Support Center U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Alexandria, Virginia 22315 Prepared by Richard Reppert IWR Report 92-WMB-l National Wetland Mitigation Banking Study This report is part of a series of reports which are being published during the National Study. General background information pertaining to wetland mitigation banking and the scope of the national s tudy were the subjects of a report published during the first year of the study. A number of reports presenting the results of the first phase of the National Study are expected to publish ed in 1994, in addition to this report. Among these reports : Wetland Mitigation Banks: A Resource Document !WR Report 94-WMB-2, prepared by the Environm ental Law Institute and the Institute for Water Resources. This report present bank- specific information obtained by the national study in its inventory of banks and detailed case study histories of 22 wetland mitigation banks. The report also includes an annotated wetland mitigation banking bibliography and a summary of study findings on fee-based compensatory mitigation . Expanding Opportunities for Compensatory Mitigation : The Private Credit Market Alternatives !WR R eport IWR -94-WMB-3, prepared by Leonard Shabman, D ennis King, and Paul Scodari. This study looks at the economic forces affecting the marke t for mitigation credits. A framework that describes the factors affecting the supply and demand of mitigation credits is presented. Interviews with prospective entrepreneurial bankers were conducted. Also interviewed are relevant regulatory and resource officials for several of the banks. First phase report !WR R eport 94-WMB-4, prepared by Robert Brumbaugh and Richard Reppert, Institute for Water Resources. Summation of findings of phase one of the national wetland mitigation banking study and recommendations for the final study phase. An Examination of Wetland Programs: Opportunities for Compensatory Mitigation !WR Report 94-WMB-5, prepared by Apogee Research, Inc . Sixty eight programs that co ndu ct or facilitate wetland restoration or creation were identified that might be applicable to fee-based mitigation . Fourteen programs with the greatest potential are profiled in more detail . For further information on the Wetland Mitigation Banking Demonstration Study, contact e ither: Dr. Robert W. Brumbaugh Study Manager Institute for Water R esources Casey Building 770 1 Telegraph Road Alexandria, VA 22315-3868 Telephone: (703) 355-3069 Dr. Eugene Z. Stakhiv Chief. Policy and Special Studies Division In stitute for Wat er Resources Casey Building 7701 Telegraph Road Alexandria , VA 22315-3868 Telephone: (703) 355-2370 R eports may be ordered by writing (above address) or ca llin g Arlene Nurthen, !WR Publications, at (703) 355-3042. TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ................................................................... v INTRODUCTION TO WETLANDS MITIGATION BANKING ......................... 1 Definition of the Concept ................................................. 1 Application ............................................................ 2 Legal Basis ............................................................. 2 Variations in Type ....................................................... 3 The National Perspective .................................................. 5 EVALUATION OF WETLANDS MITIGATION BANKJNG TO DATE .................. 7 Inventory and Sponsorship ................................................ 7 The Pros and Cons of Wetlands Mitigation Banking ............................. 7 THE WETLANDS MITIGATIONBANKING DEMONSTRATION STUDY .............. 15 ISSUE IDENTIFICATION ..................................................... 17 The Question of Program and Project Applicability ............................ 17 Impact of Wetlands Mitigation Banking on the Quality of Planning and the Rigor of the Regulatory Decision-Making Process ...................... 17 Uncertainty of Wetlands Management Techniques ............................. 17 Advanced or After-The-Fact Compensation. . ................................ 18 Out-Of-Kind Mitigation ................................................. 19 Crediting and Debiting Techniques ......................................... 19 The Federal Interest and Agency Authority ................................. 20 Costs and Cost Effectiveness .............................................. 21 Geographic Scope of Wetlands Mitigation Banking ........................... 21 Ownership and Liability ................................................. 21 Monitoring ........................................................... 22 REFERENCES CITED ........................................................ 25 ill LIST OF TABLES Table 1, Existing Wetland Mitigation Banks ......................................... 8 Table 2 , Wetland Mitigation Banks Under Planning ................................... 9 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1, Existing Wetland Mitigation Banks ....................................... 11 Figure 2 , Wetland Mitigation Banks Under Planning ................................. 11 lV This paper provides general background information pertaining to wetlands mitigation banking . It is one of the initial products of a Wetlands Mitigation Banking Demonstration Study being conducted by the U.S. Army Engineer Institute for Water Resources, Casey Building, Fort Belvoir, VA 22060-5586 The authority for the Wetlands Mitigation Banking Demonstration Study is Section 307(d) of the Water Resources Development Act of 1990 . The purpose of the study is to comprehensively review and evaluate wetlands mitigation banking, to determine its potential for achieving established national wetland goals, to determine its applicability to Corps of Engineers programs , to develop general guidance on the establishment and operation of wetland mitigation banks, and to formulate a demonstration program for potential implementation by the Corps of Engineers. The study, which began in December 1991, is a two phase effort, each about 15 months duration . The first phase is being devoted to ( 1) critical review and evaluation of banks by means of case studies, coordination with others and literature research, (2) analysis of technical and policy issues , (3) assessment of crediting and debiting methods and (4) determination of the feasibility of a wetlands mitigation banking demonstration PREFACE program together with identification of potential demonstration sites . Assuming the feasibility of proceeding with a demonstration program, the second phase of the study will involve (1) detailed planning and design of demonstration sites, (2) assistance in the preparation of Corps of Engineers policy and guidance pertaining to wetlands mitigation banking, (3) preparation of an Implementation Manual providing detailed procedural and technical guidance on the establishment and operation of banks for the benefit of potential public and private sponsors and Corps of Engineers field personnel, and ( 4) preparation of a final report to the Congress. This concept paper was prepared under the direct supervision of Dr. Eugene Z. Stakhiv , Chief, Policy and Special Studies Division , Institute for Water Resources . Kyle E . Schilling is Director of the Institute. For further information about the Wetlands Mitigation Banking Demonstration Study , please contact the study manager, Dr. Robert Brumbaugh, Policy and Special Studies Division , Institute for Water Resources, Fort Belvoir, VA at (703)355- 3069 . v BLANK PAGE (Click here to skip to next page) VI a. Definition of the Concept Wetlands mitigation banking is a relatively new natural resource management concept which provides for the advanced compensation of unavoidable wetland losses due to developmental activities. Mitigation banking can be achieved through the creation, restoration, enhancement or preservation of other wetland areas of equivalent value generally located outside the immediate area of wetlands loss or alteration . Wetland mitigation banks are normally relatively large blocks of wetlands whose estimated tangible and intangible values, termed credits , are similar to cash deposits in a regular checking account. As anticipated development takes place, credits equivalent to the estimated unavoidable wetland losses are withdrawn or debited from the bank to compensate for the losses incurred. As development continues over time , the credits of banks, which are qualitatively similar and scaled in size to the magnitude of anticipated wetlands losses, are progressively exhausted. When credits are reduced to zero, further mitigation must then be effected by other means or through establishment of new banks. The objective in wet lands mitigation banking is to replace the physical and biological functions and human-use values of the wetlands which are unavoidably lost due to development. The estimation of wetland losses (debits) and the estimation of the credits contained within banks are determined using both analytical and non- analytical methods . Analytical methods are functionally based and vary in their degree of 1. INTRODUCTION TO WETLANDS MITIGATION BANKING comprehensiveness . Fish and wildlife habitat values traditionally are estimated through habitat- based methods such as the Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP) developed by the U .S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS, 1980). In these cases the debits and credits are listed in terms of habitat uni ts for the particular evaluation species used in the analysis, and compensatory replacements are made on the same basis . The more comprehensive valuation of wetlands n ecessitates the use of analytical methods capable of quantifying broader arrays of physical and biological functions for which wetlands are noted . One such method is the Wetland Evalu ation Technique (WET) (Adamus, 1987). However, the methodology which 1s most commonly used for valuation and accounting purposes is a non-analytical (and non-functional) one which merely tabulates credits and debits according to acreage of various wetland types . Using this method, compensatory mitigation is effected merely by replacing wetland types lost with wetland types contained in a bank on an acreage basis . R egardless of the valuation methods used , compensatory mitigation in banks may or may not entail acre for acre in-kind replacement of wetlands . It could entail replacement with more or less acreage of different wetland types depending on the unit valuation of the wetlands lost compared to the unit valuation of the wetlands located in the bank. Introduction to Wetlands Miti{iation Bankin{i b. Application Wetlands mitigation banking is most amenable for the compensation of relatively small wetlands losses caused by repetitive types of construction activity in which piecemeal losses may be minor but cumulative losses over time may be substantial. By virtue of their small size and usual location within established arenas of development, such losses may not be feasible to mitigate on-site . In view of these circumstances, the greatest potential for wetlands mitigation banking is in the regulatory program. Two of the most important advantages of mitigation banking are that it (1) allows the consolidation of such losses and their compensation en bloc in a specially designated and managed area off site , and (2) normally provides for their compensation before the fact, i.e. before the wetland losses actually take place. Wetland mitigation banks established to date are heavily associated with highway construction and port development, both of which entail the piecemeal loss or damage to wetland resources which are commonly infeasible to mitigate on site . State highway departments and port authorities have been the principal sponsors of banks in these instances. c. Legal Basis The principal legal bases for the rrut1gation of wetland losses, at least from a national perspective are (1) The Fish and Wildlife Coordinat ion Act of 1958 (FWCA), (2) Section 404 of the Clean Water Act (CWA) and the Section 404(b)(l) Guidelines promulgated by the Environmental Protection Agency, and 2 (3) Executive Order 11990, Protection of wetlands . The FWCA provides an opportunity for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , National Marine Fisheries Service and the head of the applicable state fish and wildlife agencies to comment on Corps of Engineers water resource development projects and on Department of the Army permits applied for under Section l 0 of the River and Harbor Act of 1899 and Section 404 of the CWA . Further, the FWCA requires the Corps to consider specific recommendations for the mitigation of fish and wildlife habitat losses made by these agencies for potential adoption as part of federal water resource projects or as conditions in the issuance of Department of the Army permits. Most of the banks implemented to date have been in response to initiatives developed under the FWCA and have involved construction projects developed under Corps of Engineers permit authorities. Historically, arrangements for the establishment of banks have been worked out by negotiation between federal and state fish and wildlife agencies and prospective bank sponsors. Normally these negotiations culminate in an MOA (Memorandum of Agreement) to which all principals are signatory . In many of these cases there has been little direct Corps involvement in the formative stages of banks; however, once established, the tendency has been for the Corps to accept the debiting and crediting arrangements recommended by the agencies in its review of individual permit applications and to adopt these for compensatory mitigation purposes. Several active banks have been developed through an alternate procedure in which specifications pertaining to establishment, maintenance and operation are cited as special conditions in permits issued directly to bank sponsors rather than in the form of an MOA . In such cases the Corps of Engineers has, of course, been actively involved in planning aspects. The EPA Section 404(b)(l) Guidelines establish specific environmental criteria which must be met for activities to be permitted under Section 404 and hence provide a more definitive basis for the mitigation of wetland losses than the FWCA. A 1990 Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between EPA and the Corps articulates specific policy and procedures concerning the determination of mitigation under the Section 404(b)(l) Guidelines. The MOA recognizes that mitigation banking may be an acceptable form of compensatory mitigation under specific criteria designed to assure that the banks meet their environmental objectives. Quite aside from the authority which is used for their establishment, the actual debiting of banks to compensate for anticipated losses from individual construction activities is still subject to the sequencing provisions of the Corps' permit review procedures. Thus , as a rule, debiting is only allowed (1) following the determination that wetland losses cannot be avoided , (2) following efforts to minimize wetland losses through modification of construction plans and designs, and (3) following a determination that it is not feasible to mitigate losses onsite. d. Variations in Type This discussion concerns the varied classification, mode of sponsorship, funding and operation which characterizes banks. Sponsorship of existing banks runs the gamut from those established by industrial firms , individual entrepreneurs , public agencies such as state highway departments, quasi-public entities such as port authorities, and federal Introduction to Wetlands Mitigation Banking agencies. In general , banks fit into two categories : ( 1) dedicated banks , whose principal objectives are the compensation of wetland losses associated with discrete types of construction activity and which by and large are sponsored by single construction entities, and (2) commercial banks , which are established by private entrepreneurs and whose wetland credits are available for purchase on the open market by miscellaneous construction entities whose activities require the compensation of wetland losses . ( 1) Industrial banks. One of the earliest banks was sponsored by a private corporation known as Tenneco LaTerre , for the purpose of mitigating in advance for piecemeal wetland losses resulting from its oil and gas exploration activities in the Louisiana coastal marshes . (Sometime following establishment of the bank, Tenneco LaTerre 's holdings were acquired by another firm and it is now known as Fina LaTerre). In the case of Fina la Terre the bank is entirely proprietary in nature; it is located on company lands, with imp lementation of initial marsh restoration measures and continued operation by the company (Soileau, 1984 and Dell , 1991 ). (2) Highway-related banks. In the case of banks established to mitigate wetland losses due to highway construction, the state highway departments normally act as the sponsoring entities and provide funding for their initial establishment and operation. In most cases , however, actual operation is carried out by an expert state natural resource agency operating under agreement with the highway department in question, usually with transfer of title to the lands as well. 3 Introduction to Wetlands Miti'fation Bankin'f Until recently the Federal Highway Administration was not authorized to fund the mitigation of wetland losses outside of the immediate highway right-of-way (highway related banks are the predominant type in spite of this limitation). However, with passage of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, banks are now classified as highway projects in themselves , thereby making them eligible for federal funding support. This funding a uthority should greatly enhance the establishment of banks for highway development purposes. (3) Port-related banks. Banks established to mitigate wetland losses associated with port development take essentially the same form. In the case of most of the larger commercial ports the port authorities serve as bank sponsors and fund their establishment and operation. However, in the case of certain smaller, Jess commercially developed ports , sponsorship and funding is sometimes carried out by lessees or groups of lessees operating within the ports . Unlike state highway departments which bear the ultimate cost of bank establishment, maintenance and operation, port authorities are in a position to recover some or all of their costs by passing them down to port users in the form of port user fees , land rents and the like . (4) Federal project banks. To date, there are few known instances of mitigation banks associated with federal water resource development programs or projects. One project- Jevel bank was established by the Bureau of Reclamation (Burec) in cooperation with the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources in order to compensate for losses of wildlife habitat in conjunction with construction of the Bonneville Unit of Burec's Central Utah project. Although wetlands were not involved in this case, the fact 4 that it was a successful operation allows it to serve as a useful analog . The Passaic River flood control project in New Jersey and New York, authorized for construction by the Corps of Engineers in the Water Resources Development Act of 1990, is the only known example of a bank invo lving a Corps of Engineers project. A non-structural flood control component of that project, entailing the acquisition of large acreages of freshwater wetlands within the State of New Jersey which have a natural flood detention capability, has been termed a "Wetlands Bank" in the authorizing legislation . The purpose of the wetlands bank is not only to compensate for wetlands los ses ca used elsewhere in the Passaic River basin by the project's structural flood control features, but also to mitigate for wetland lo sses due to non-federal acttv1t1es carried out througho ut the state of New Jersey. In the authorizing le gislation the State of New Jersey is charged with the responsibility for actual implementation and operation of the wetlands bank. In the case of the Passaic, the wetlands credits are now principally in the form of preservation credits due to the threatened nature of the wetlands in question. However, many of the wetlands are presently degraded and provide a potential for accumulating additional mitigation credits through restorative efforts . The Passaic River project is now in the Preconstruction Planning and Design stage. (5) Commercial banks and the sale and purchase of wetland credits. A recent inventory of banks has identified one commercial bank in active operation in California and others in planning in Georgia, New Jersey and Texas. It appears that entrepreneurial interests are becoming increasingly aware of the profitability of wetlands restoration, creation and enhancement and the associated sale August 1991 comprehensive of compensatory credits. On 9 the President announced a plan for the protection of the nation's wetlands which includes interest in development of a "market-oriented" mitigation banking system for regulatory purposes . Under such a system, private developers would be provided incentives to restore or create wetlands as the basis for mitigation credits which in turn can be sold or traded to developers in order to satisfy their compensatory mitigation requirements . The exact form these incentives might take is not yet known . The system, which would be based on wetland categories to be defined by an interagency technical committee, would presume satisfaction of permit conditions if the mitigation credits are from the same or higher wetland category. It should also be noted that the MOA's of several dedicated banks contain provisions which permit their sponsors to sell excess credits which are excess to their needs on the open market. Pre suma bly these provisions have been included in the interest of cost recovery. (6) Wetlands mitigation trusts. Another form of mitigation involving the cash purchase of wetland credits by developers is the so -called wetlands trust fund concept. Under this concept developers make cash contributions to a trust fund maintained by a local , state or federal entity in order to cover the wetland losses for which they are responsible. Accumulated monies are then used to provide replacement wet land areas for mitigation purposes after the fact. Five wetland mitigation trusts are known to exist at present, in Maryland, Louisiana, California, Oregon and Hawai i. Because this form of mitigation does not provide for the advanced or pre-planned compensation of wetland losses, wetlands mitigation trusts do not fit Introduction to Wetlands Miti§ation Banking the precise definition of wetlands mitigation banking. However, the fact that they do provide for the consolidation of small wetland mitigation requirements associated with repetitive-ty pe activities using the same wetlands management techniques gives them much in common with banks . The distinctions which exist between wetlands mitigation trusts and banks appear important to environmental interests . However, developmental interests perceive little difference between the two. e. The National Perspective A growing national interest in wetlands mitigation banking is evident. The National Wetlands Policy Forum (NWPF), whose November 15, 1988 report, Protecting America's Wetlands -An Action Agenda (Conservation Foundation , 1988), first proposed the national goal of no net lo ss of wetlands, specifically advocated the establishment of banks to which permittees could contribute in order to satisfy wetlands compensation requirements (emphasis added -the language used in the NWPF document seems to suggest that wetlands mitigation banking is viewed as having limited applicability to regulated activities). The national wetlands goal and recommendations of the NWPF have been enhanced in stature by presidential support, and a wetlands task force within the Domestic Policy Council is charged to develop administrative policies geared to their implementation. The task force includes wetlands mitigation banking within its purview including developing the concept of market-oriented banks noted above. Several federal agencies with key roles in the management and regulation of wetlands have already embraced wetlands mitigation banking and embodied it in their policies and programs . Shortly 5 Introduction to Wetlands Mitigation Bankin& after the President lent his support to the NWPF recommendations , the Chief of Engineers forwarded to the Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works) a proposed strategy with which to achieve the national wetland goal, including investigating the potential applicability of wetlands mitigation banking to Corps projects. Later, a potential regulatory role for wetlands mitigation banking was foreseen. The 6 February 1990 MOA between the Corps and EPA for determination of mitigation under the Section 404(b)(l) Guidelines acknowledges that banks may be an acceptable form of compensatory mitigation and commits the agencies to the development of additional guidance . Other agencies have gotten seriously involved in wetlands mitigation banking as well. As noted previously, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service contributed to the initial development of wetlands mitigation banking in the early l 980's. Although falling short of absolute endorsement, the USFWS in a 1990 policy statement advocated its investigation, together with fee mitigation, as alternative wetland mitigation strategies (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). The FHWA (Federal Highway Administration) also has a long-standing policy toward wetlands mitigation banking, and with over half of the existing banks nationwide devoted to the mitigation of highway construction damages to wetlands, the effectiveness of their policies cannot be disputed. SCS (Soi l Conservation Service) policies pertaining to wetlands mitigation relate mainly to the "Swampbuster" program (i.e the wetlands conservation provisions of the Food Security Act of 1985). These policies permit the mitigation of wetland agricultural conversion through the creation, restoration and maintenance of other 6 wetlands of equivalent value with the proviso that the banks are established and maintained without direct federal assistance. Other operational limitations also apply. To date only one bank has been established (in North Dakota), and that bank is not operative because it does not meet rigorous conditions imposed by SCS. SCS representatives feel that Swampbuster does not present conditions which are conducive to wetland mitigation banking inasmuch as its basic purpose is to protect existing wetlands from drainage. The best potential for SCS application is thought to be in conjunction with projects developed und er its Watershed Protection and Conservation (PL 566) Program, although historically mitigation in small watershed type projects has been effected on-site on a project by project basis. Wetlands mitigation banking has caught the attention of Congress , too . The Water Resources Development Act of 1990 (WRDA 90) is the basic authority for this study . Also , various bills under consideration in the l 02nd Congress pertaining to reauthorization of the Cle an Water Act contain provisions relating to wet lands mitigation banking and bank demonstration programs . As previously mentioned, the recently enacted Intermodal Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 now provides funding support for the establishment of banks in conjunction with federal aid highways. While the SCS has no specific authorizations pertaining to wetlands mitigation banking, the legislative hi story of the 19 90 amendments to the Food Security Act do contain references to the concept which have allowed the promulgation of relevant policies by that agency (7 CFR 12.5). a. Inventory and Sponsorsh ip A preliminary inventory of banks compiled by the U.S . Army Corps of Engineers Institute for Water Resources has identified 37 banks in active operation and another 64 in various stages of planning. Of the 37 active banks, 19 are sponsored by state highway departments, 8 involve port development, 7 involve general land development , 1 involves agricultural drainage, 1 involves mining operations and 1 involves oil and gas activity. In addition, 5 active wetland trusts have been identified. Given the fact that a 1988 survey of banks conducted by the U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service (Short, 1988) identified only 12 banks in which that agency was actively involved at the time, it appears that the number of banks has more than tripled in the space of only 4 years. Tables 1 and 2 and Figures 1 and 2 list and locate active and planned banks . b. The Pros and Cons of Wetlands M itigation Banking Owing to the relative newness of the concept, little information concerning the performance record of banks is available. Undoubtedly the best work available on this subject is that by Short (1988), which provides detailed evaluations of the 12 active banks with which the USFWS had an involvement up to that time . This analysis of wetlands mitigation banking relies heavily upon the USFWS study , with supplementary information obtained through informal contact with Corps of Engineers 2. EVALUATIO N OF WETLAND S M I TIGATIO N BANKING TO DATE headquarters , field and laboratory personnel ; the U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service ; Soil Conservation Service ; Environmental Protection Agency ; Federal Highway Administration ; the American Association of Port Authorities ; the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ; and the Association of State Wetland Managers . Of necessity, this review is largely confined to regulatory banks which are by far the predominant type . To summarize, the perceived track record for banks depends on the particular interest and viewpoints of those involved. Permittees and both individual and institutional bank sponsors generally give them high marks because of the degree of efficiency and predictability they bring to the permit review process. Federal and state agencies generally share this belief once banks are established and operating . However, many of these agencies are critical of the time and aggravation which the development of wetland mitigation banking agreements sometimes entails. The USFWS and state fish and wildlife agencies tend to have mixed feelings toward banks . While tending to agree that the concept makes for the establishment of larger, more easily managed and generally more valuable wetland units than is possible with piecemeal mitigation efforts , they are aware of serious limitations. Chief among these is the concern that wetlands restoration and creation efforts (upon which wetland mitigation credits are initially based) have not been uniformly successful and in some cases have had negative results to the extent that several banks are currently operating at a deficit. 7 Evaluation of Wetlands Mitigation Banking to Date Table I. EXJSTIN G WETLANDM A A ' ITIG TION B NKS I nst1 tu te I NA M E OF BA NK I LOC ATION Goose C reek/Bowers Hill Tidal Mit igatio n Bank VA, Suffolk Co. Cabin Creek WMB VA , Prince George Co. Fort Lee WMB VA, Pri nce George Co. Greensv ill e Co . Palustrine Wet land Bank VA , G ree nsvi ll e Co. Com pany Swamp NC, Bertie Co. Pridgen Flats NC, Samoson Co. Port of Pascagoula SAM P MS, Jackson Co. MS State Highway Department, Dahomey Natl Wild life MS , Bolivar Co. Refuge MS State Highway Department, State Li nc & MS, Greene Co. Dead Dog Pitcher Plant Bogs MS St Hwy Dcot, Malm aison Wild ! Mg mt Arca MS, Gre nada Co. Fina LaTerrc Mi tiga tio n Bank LA, Terrebonne Pa rish Loui siana DOTD Mi tiga ti o n Bank LA , Grant & LaSa ll e Parishc Pa trick Lake Wl , Da ne Co. Minn DOT Wetland Habi tat MB MN , statewide , 9 reg. accow , 40 sit es Mont ana ln tcragency Wetl ands Commincc Bank MT, statewide (mu lt iple tracl South Dakota Wet lands Accou nting Syste m Bank S D, Ar lington North Dakota Wetlan ds Bank ND, Statewide No rth Dakota State Highway Departm ent ND , State-wide Fa lkirk Mine ND, Underwood Ac iqu ia Wetland Bank ID , Cassia Co. O ld Beaver ID , Clark Co. Mu d Lake State Wi ld li fe Management Arca ID, Jefferson Co. Weye rhaeuser Company -North Spit Mit. Plan OR, Coos Co. Po rt of Astoria Land MB OR, C latsoo Co. Astori a Airport Mi tiga ti on Bank OR, C latsop Co. Washoe Lake Mitigation Bank NV, Washoe Co. Mid-C ity Ranch CA , Hu mboldt Co. Bra cut Marsh CA, Hum bo ldt Co. Springtown Natural Comm unities Re serve CA, Livermo re Cal Coastal Conservancy -Huntington Beac h CA, Orange Co. ACWH EP (Aliso Creek) CA, Orange Co. Po rt of Long Beac h -Pi er J, Anahei m Bay MB CA , Orange Co. Po rt of Long Beach -Pier A Newport Bay CA, Orange Co. Port of Los Angeles I nn cr Harbor CA, Los Angeles Co. San Joaquin Marsh CA, Ora nge Co. Naval Amp hibious Base Eelgrass Mi t. Bank CA , San Diego Co. Sea Worl d Eelgrass M iti gation Bank CA, San Diego Co. 8 fi w o r ate r R eso urces P r re 1mm ary s urvey D ata, J une 1992 I ACTIVITY I S PONSOR I hig hways Vi rginia DOT highways Virginia DOT hig hways Virginia DOT hig hways Virginia DOT highways North Carolina DOT hig hways North Caroli na DOT po rt development, long-term mai nte nance Mi ss. Bu r. of Marine Resources disoosal plan h ighways M iss. State Highway Department highways Miss. State Highway Depa rt ment h ighways M iss. State Highway Depa rt ment o il & gas exploration & ot her unspecified Fin a-La Terre activi ti es ;h ighways & public works projects Louisiana DOT hi ghways W isconsin DOT !hi ghways, rest area constr., airport Minn DOT co nstruction !l)ighways , possibly other state Montana DOT ac ti vities hig hways South Dakota DOT agri c . drainage projects ND Game & Fish Dept & Wa ter Commission hi ghways ND State Hwy Dept & USFWS mining North American Coal hi ghways Ida ho DOT highways Ida ho DOT I highways Idaho DOT deve looment , hig hways Weyerhaeuser Company oort dcvcloomen t Po rt of Astoria develo pment Oregon Div. State Lan ds hi ghways Nevada DOT oubli c uti lities, highways Humboldt Co. indus. dcveloomcnt, govt faci lities Cal. State Coastal Conservancy all tvocs of activity Wet land Exchange Co. of Calif highways Cal. State Coastal Conservancy genera l land development Orange Co ., Mission Viejo Comp. oort development Port of Long Beach port development Port of Long Beach I port development Port of Los Angeles I genera l land devclooment The Irv in e Comoany dredgi ng & facili ties Deot of the Navv shore developmen t, pri va te projects Sea World Evaluation of Wetlands Mitigation Banking to Date Table 2. WETLAND MITIGATION BANKS UNDER PL ANNING , In st itute fo r Water Resources Pre limin ary Survey Data , Ju ne 1992. Na me of b a nk under ol a nnin2 L o cation Activity New Jersey DOT WMB NJ Highways Passaic River Central Basi n Wetlands Bank NJ , Essex, Morri s, & Passaic Counties Water resources dev . (fiood control) Hackensack Meadowlands NJ , Hu dson Co., Hackensack Ri ve r General land development Chiment o NJ , Monm ou th Co. Land/Water resou rces development Dismal Swamp NJ, M idd lesex Co. La nd/Water resources development Prince George's Cou nt y Dept of Envir. Resources MD, Prince George's Co. Ragged Island Wild li fe Manage ment Area -VA, Lower James River Basin Port development O ffsho re Island Creatio n C reeds VA, Virgi n ia Beach , Back Bay watershed Ci ty Capital Improvement Proj . Lowe's Island WMB VA, Loudoun Co., Sugarland Run Ge neral development Da le City WMB VA , Prince William Co., Neabsco Creek Subdivision & ge neral develop ment North ern Virginia WMB VA , Fa irfax Co., Ma nassas, Bull Ru n wa tershed Hi ghways Va ndross Bay SC, George town Co. Hig hways Millhaven Plantation Comm ercia l WMB GA , Screven and Burke Counties, Brier Creek No specific activity Marshland Plantation Commercial WMB GA, Camden Co., Sati ll a River No soccific activity Bird Drive Mitigation Bank FL , Dade Co., Ho le in the Donut, Everglades N. Park Res id ential , commercial & agricu ltura l North Trail WMB FL , Dade Co., North Tra il Basin (Everglades) Res id enti a l, comm ercial & agric ul tura l Mud La ke Mitigation Bank FL , Orange Co., Mud Lak e Boggy Creek Airpo rt develo pment Orl ando Internatio nal Airport Build-Out FL, Orange Co. Airoort dcvcloomcnt Fl orida DOT Saddle Creek FL, Po lk Co., Saddle Creek Basin Highways SE H ill sborough County Mitigation Bank FL , Hi ll sborough Co., Ala fi a River waters hed Highways & utili ty projects SW Fla Reg . Wi ldli fe & Wet lands Conserva tio n & M it igatic n FL, Colli er Co., primary watershed, Rookery Bay Genera l residentia l development Area North west Hillsborough County Mitigatio n Bank FL, Hill sborough Co., O ld Tampa Bay wa tershed Highways & uti lity projects . Wetl and s Landbank of Florida, Inc . FL , Broward Co., East Everg lades Genera l land development Walt Di sney World FL , SW Orange & NW Osceola Counties Commercia l & reside ntia l develooment State of Alabama Highway Department AL, Mo rgan Co. adjacent Wh eeler Wild life Refuge, Highways T ennessee River. Depart ment of Ene rgy TN Hazard ous waste dis oosal TN DOT Mit igatio n Bank TN, Shelby Co. Highways Arkan sas State Highway & Transportation Department AR, three regional WM B's ; (I) Delta Region; Highways (2)1ntcri or Highl and s; (3)Gulf Coastal Plain Bark sda le Air Fo rce Base WMB LA, Boss ier Co. Ge nera l land development Ste nni s Space Center WMB MS, Hancock Co. General land deve lopment Pass a Loutre dclta ic solaY dcvelooment LA , Plaoucmines Paris h Oi l & Gas Indus & Comm act ivi ties. Terrebonne Pari sh Bott omland Hardwood/Pt. Au Chene LA, T errebonne Parish Forced drainage projects 9 I I Evaluation of Wetlands Mitigation Banking to Date Nam e of b a nk under l!l a nning Himont expansion bo ttomland hardwood bank Commercial Mitigat ion Bank Dow Nature Refuge T ay lor Lake Nature Preserve and WMB Internatio nal Cen te r Preserv ati on of W il d Animals Geist Reservoir WMB Morse Reservoir WMB Winfield Creek Lake Countv St. Clair County, Illinoi s Wetlands Bank ing MO Hwy & Trans. Dept. Lanc aster County, Nebraska Nebraska Dept. of Roads Wyoming Department ofTrans pertati o n Provo Citv WMS Tenth West Corridor WMB New Mexico DOT WMS Tont o Creek Mission Bay Ee lgrass Mitigation Bank Port of Lo s Angeles Batiauitos Lagoon Bill Signs Trucking WMB Goleta Slough & Estuary Management Plan Arca Gaviota Creek & Estuary Multi-Agency Mit. plan Santa Ynez Planning C learing Agreement Plan Sacramento County WMB Placer Countv WMB Program Turner Mitigation Bank Dalt on Lake Mit iga tion Bank Colvi ll e WMB , Stevens County Mill Creek Special Arca Management Pl an Green River City and Borough of Jun eau WMB 10 I Table 2 (co n tinu ed) I Location I Ac ti v ity I LA , Calcas ieu Parish Indu stria l plant expansion T X, Aransas Co., McCa mpbcll Slough TX, Lake Jackson Industrial development TX, Harris Co. General land development OH, Muskigum, Mu skingum Basin Arca All activities approved for mitigation. IN, Marion Co., Fall Creek Watersh ed Genera l land development JN , Hamilton Co., Cicero Creek Watershed Genera l land development IL , Du Pa ge Co. Genera l land development IL , Lake Co . Genera l land development IL, St. C lair Co. -Rich land & Si lver Creeks, Airport expansion , ind ustria l deve lopment, Kaskaskia River, and Mississippi River. highways, rail , MO Hi ghways NE, Lancaster Co. Varied general county activiti es NE Highways WY, State-wide Highways UT Utah Co. Utah Lake watershed Genera l land dcveloomcnt UT , Cac he Co. Genera l land development NM, Valencia, Rio Grande River Highways AZ, T o nto C reek Rec lamation projects CA, San Diego Co., Miss io n Bay Shoreline stabilization, storm drainages CA, San Diego Co., Batiqui tos Lagoon Port Development CA, Sa n Diego Co., Sa n Diego River Genera l land deve lopmen t CA, Santa Barbara Co., Goleta Slough Land brokerage swapping CA , Santa Barbara Co., Gaviota Creek & tribs Highways CA, Santa Barbara Co., Sant a Ynez Rive r Emergency vegeta ti ve mowing CA, Sacramento Co., Stone Lake Wildlife Ref. Genera l land development CA, Placer Co., Sacramento River Watershed Genera l land development OR, Marion Co., Battlccrcck Watershed Highways OR, Columb ia Co., Columbia River. Highways WA , Stevens Co., adjace nt Highway 395 Hi ghways WA , King Co ., Mi ll Creek Basin General land dcv ., wet land restoration WA , King Co., Green Rive r Basin Hi ghways AK , City & Borough of Jun eau Residential & comm ercial development Figure 1 Figure 2 .... ~ . .. •·Existing Banks Evaluation of Wetlands Mitigation Banking to Date A-Trust Or Fee Type Banks Existing Wetland Mitigation Banks Institute for Water Resources Preliminary Survey May 1992 •-Banks Under Planning Wetland Mitigation Banks Under Planning Institute for Water Resources Preliminary Survey May 1992 11 Evaluation of Wetlands Mitigation Banking to Date (1) Positive aspects. Details on the beneficial aspects of wetlands mitigation banking as reported by Comiskey and Stakhiv (1983), Short (1988), Steever (1991 ), and others are as follows: (a) Consolidation of small wetland losses. Banks make it possible to compensate small wetlands losses, which typically go unmitigated because of their insignificant size coupled with the frequent inability to mitigate on-site. By consolidating these small losses, banks provide an increased level of success to compensatory mitigation objectives. (b) Mitigation in advance. Because they are normally established in advance, mitigation banks eliminate the lag time between loss and replacement which might otherwise exist with other forms of mitigation. In so doing, banks permit the goal of no net loss of wetlands to be realized at the single project or permit level. ( c) Increased planning effort. Also because they are established in advance, banks have the advantage of a greater level of effort and more expert attention, thus more thorough, ecologically sensitive planning and design . This benefit also permits mitigation efforts to be better integrated into state , regional and local wetlands planning efforts. (d) Higher environmental and social value. Owing to their relatively large size, banks tend to be more environmentally valuable and offer more options for resource management as well as public appreciation and use than small parcels of wetlands normally associated with mitigation on a piecemeal basis. (e) Conflict resolution. While considerable difficulty may be experienced in the initial establishment of banks covering regulated activities, once in operation they tend to minimize the conflicts between individuals and institutions in subsequent permit actions. (t) Monitoring and evaluation. Because banks involve fewer, larger wetland sites, they 12 facilitate the monitoring and evaluation of mitigation efforts . (g) Improved regulatory climate. Because the mitigation element is taken care of in advance , banks make for faster permit processing and decision- making and provide economies of time and money for both permit applicants and the regulating agency. Banks also bring an increased level of predictability to the regulatory process and thus remove much of the financial risk associated with permitted activities. (h) Public recognition and support. Because of the size factor, banks have higher visibility and public profile which provide incentives for private developers to participate in their establishment. (i) Economic efficiency. Economies of scale are inherent in wetlands mitigation banking and thus it is normally less costly to establish and manage one large wetland unit than many small compensatory wetland areas . (j) Permanence. Banks provide the opportunity to effect more formal and lasting arrangements for the preservation and maintenance of wetland areas . (2) Negative aspects. Potential shortcomings of banks as reported by Short (1988), the Institute for Water Resources and others are as follows: (a) Purported reduction in quality of planning and regulatory decision-making. There is a perception that the existence of banks allows the full sequencing provisions of the regulatory decision-making process to be circumvented and poses the possibility that bank credits will be used to compensate for wetland losses before means of avoiding or minimizing losses and opportunities for on-site mitigation are properly evaluated. Although this was identified as a perceived problem by Short (1988), that author has acknowledged that there is actually no empirical evidence to substantiate the effect. (b) Uncertainty of wetland management tee hniques. None of the traditional wetlands management techniques are totally proven and all possess limitations which sometimes detract from their utility in wetlands mitigation banking . The use of preservation as a means to compensate wetlands losses is a particularly contentious point among those who argue the pros and cons of wetlands mitigation and merits explanation. Preservation of existing wetlands areas for compensation purposes becomes a valid consideration only when it can be shown that the wetlands in the preservation area would be lost in the absence of preservation. If this condition cannot be met, wetland losses would not be replaced --in fact, preservation would result in a net reduction in wetlands . Because the loss of wetlands is many times difficult to predict, preservation is not routinely used as the sole basis for crediting in wetlands mitigation banking. The extent to which preservation is typically used is to allow partial fish and wildlife management credit (in the neighborhood of 10 to 15% of existing values) (Short, 1988) to recognize the value of public ownership and responsible management of preserved areas on a case by case basis . Wetlands creation is regarded in scientific circles as a still somewhat experimental technique . Under close scientific scrutiny , certain artificial wetland areas created to date have been found not to have the equivalent attributes of natural wetlands which they are intended to duplicate . To a large degree this can be attributed to their youth and immaturity , particularly with respect to their edaphic characteristics. However, the time span needed for created wetlands to assume true natural character is uncertain . Evaluation of Wetlands Mitigation Banking to Date While wetlands restoration and enhancement exist as the surest techniques for the purposes of wetlands mitigation banking , the slow rate at which many wetlands actually return to the natural state or to an enhanced condition and begin to amass bankable credits has also been a problem in several cases . Explicit account must be given to these known limitations in the planning of banks, particularly in their sizing, the determination of mitigation credits and Ill the development of debiting and crediting procedures. (c) Incomplete mitigation or necessity for out-of-kind mitigation. Because, by definition, banks entail the mitigation of wetland losses off-site, they may be incapable of replacing in-kind all the known natural functions and intrinsic human use values which the impacted wetlands possess. Despite attempts in the selection of bank sites to bracket all of the types of wetlands anticipated to be impacted over time , the precise matching of wetlands types and functions may not be possible in all cases owing to the distances involved and the physical and ecological differences which exist between impact sites and the m1t1gation sites. Although out-of-kind wetlands replacement can be made one of the allowable provisions in bank operating agreements , the debiting and crediting criteria and procedures for effecting this are uncertain in a technical sense as well as a potential source of conflict between development concerns and banks operating interests . ( d) Primitive nature of crediting and debiting techniques. The state of the art in debiting and crediting is not developed sufficiently well to cope with all situations. While fish and wildlife debiting and crediting procedures can be readily developed using habitat units as the form of "currency", other wetland functions do not readily lend themselves to quantification. Therefore, banks established for the compensation of broader arrays of 13 Evaluation of Wetlands Mitigation Banking to Date wetland functions and values may entai l costly indepth study on a case by case basis . ( e) Administrative and financial considerations. Wetland mitigation banks often entail conflicts between entities involved m their establishment, requiring extensive time and resource s to re so lve. Banks also require a commitment for long- term operation and maintenance; generall y this commitment can be found in major corporations or government organizations , but may not be forthcoming in situations where such entities are not involved . Last , despite the economy of scale which is inherent in wetlands mitigation banking , the costs entailed in the acquisition, establishment and operation of large wetlands areas could also constrain development of the concept. 14 Little detailed information is available pertaining to wetland mitigation costs . Short (1988) refers to a $500,000 investment by Tenneco LaTerre (later becoming Fina LaTerre) but with no indication whether this covered only initial capital improvement or also included continuous management of the firm's 5000-acre bank . The only other reference to costs made by Short is in the form of USFWS personnel time requirements for bank establishment which have ranged to 2 person-years per bank. Al so, a recent contract study by EPA (EPA, 1991) reported costs for 9 existing banks ranging from $223 to $20,000 per acre and averaging $3,630 per acre. Presumably these represent capital costs for land acquisition and initial development. The purposes of the Wetlands Mitigation Banking Demonstration Study are to comprehensively describe and evaluate wetlands mitigation banking and its variant , fee-mitigation ; determine their potential for achieving established national wetlands goals ; determine their applicability to Corps of Engineers programs and projects ; develop guidance for their establishment and operation at the field level and to formulate and design a demonstration program for potential authorization and implementation by the Corps of Engineers. Specific study objectives are: a . To comprehensively review and analyze the history and present status of wetlands mitigation banking and fee-mitigation based on literature research ; coordination with agencies, organizations and individuals with known involvement with the concepts ; and case history studies. This is intended to be an indepth analysis of all the known technical and policy issues associated with the concept. b. To determine the feasibility of wetlands mitigation banking and fee mitigation as means to achieve the established national interim goal of no net loss of wetlands and the long-term goal of net gain of wetlands as defined by acreage and function . c . To determine the applicability of wetlands mitigation banking and fee mitigation to the Corps of Engineers water resource development program and to 3. THE WETLAND S MITIGATION BANKING DEM ONSTRATI ON STUDY identify any additional statutory authority which may be required to facilitate program development. d. To determine the federal interest in wetlands mitigation banking and fee mitigation in conjunction with the Corps of Engineers regulatory program , the extent of direct federal involvement in their establishment and operation, and the additional authority which would be necessary to facilitate such involvement. e. To develop the concept of "market oriented" wetland mitigation banks and the types of incentives, supporting federal efforts and possible legislative a uthority which may be required to facilitate their establishment and operation . f. To determine the need for and feasibility of a wetlands mitigation banking and fee mitigation demonstration program and, if determined to be feasible , to identify sites to serve as potential demonstration projects and recommend their implementation. g. To assess techniques for estimating the wetland credits and debits involved in wetland mitigation banks and their associated wetland impact areas and procedures for conducting debiting and crediting operations. Emphasis in this objective will be on the multiple functions and values of wetlands cited in EPA Section 404(b )( 1) Guidelines . 15 The Wetlands Mitigation Banking Demonstration Study h. To deve lop criteria, techniques and procedures for effecting the out-of-kind compensation of wetland losses in a wetlands mitigation banking context. i. To develop techniques and procedures for monitoring the effectiveness of wetland mitigation banks and for effecting any needed mid-course corrections in the makeup and operation of recommended demonstration projects. j . To investigate all the (I) technical, (2) legal, (3) institutional, (4) financial, (5) real estate, (6) cost sharing and other factors which are relevant to the establishment and operation of recommended demonstration projects and develop detailed plans for their implementation . 16 k . To assist in the development of Corps of Engineers policy and implementing guidance which is applicable to both the regulatory and water resource development programs. I. To develop an implementation manual providing potential bank sponsors and Corps of Engineers field elements with detailed procedural and technical guidance for their establishment and operation. m. To deve lop a report suitable for submission to the Congress . The report should present the results of the study and contain specific recommendations concerning implementation of the demonstration program . The actual and perceived problems which have been identified in past evaluations of wetlands mitigation banking comprise issues which must be addressed in the study and in the development of a demonstration program. Other important issues which need to be addressed are those specifica ll y identified in Subsection 307(d) of WRDA 90, which is the basic authorization for the study , and in policy statements on the su bject of wetlands mitigation banking emanating from the Administration or agency level. Known issues and the manner in which they affect the scope and conduct of the study are discussed below . a. The Question of Program and Project Applicability The present inventory of wetland m1t1gation banks clearly demonstrates the applicability of the concept to the Corps of Engineers regulatory program . However, with few precedents to deal with , its applicability to other aspects of the Corps program, in particular to water resource development projects, remains open to question and constitutes an issue to be investigated in the study. Examination of this issue should encompass the full scope of the Corps water resource development program with a view to identifying on one hand the impediments to wetlands mitigation banking which exist at the project level and potential opportunities which might be provided on the other. b. Impact of Wetlands Mitigation Banking on the Quality of Planning and the Rigor of the Regulatory Decision-Making Process The purported slippage in the rigor of the regulatory review and decision-making process brought on by 4. ISSUE IDENTIFICATION the existence of wetland mitigation banks merits examination. Although there appears to be no empirical ev id ence that these effects are real, the fact that these suppositions are attributed to various seemingly independent sources nonetheless gives them an air of credibility which calls for their study and evaluat ion .. c. Uncertainty of Wetlands Management Techniques The scientific effectiveness of wetlands management techniques which are used for amassing credits in wetland mitigation banks remains open to question . This is particularly true of wetland s creation and preservation; however , even restoration, which is the most tec hnic all y advanced of the wetland management methods , merits attention as it applies to particular wetland systems , restoration techniques being used and wetland functions being compensated . The preservation issue is a highly contentious one and in many circles it is flatly dismissed as a compensatory measure inasmuch as it does not entail th e actual addition to the wetlands base as do other compensatory techniques. However, the theory appears so und that it can serve this purpose so long as the destruction of wetlands in the absence of efforts to preserve them can be convincingly demonstrated (a reality which militates against a convincing argument is the existence of various general wetlands protection measures at the federal , state and local levels). Clearly , stu dy into this issue sho uld be focused on identifying the criteria and pro cedures with which to predict the rate of lo ss of wetlands within prospective "preservation units" in the absence of preservation efforts . 17 Issue Identification There is a large and growing body of scientific Ii terature on the subjects of wetlands creation, restoration and enhancement which tends to downgrade their effectiveness for compensatory purpo ses, at lea st for wetlands replacement on a one- for-one basis. Close sc ientific scrutiny of created wetlands in particular indicates that in many cases they do not have the same high qualities as the mature natural wetlands they are intended to replace . Creation, restoration and enhancement all involve intense technical issues which are considered beyond the ability of this study to resolve completely within the time-frame and budget allowed . Fortunately, both the se aspects are being examined indepth as part of the Corps of Engineer's Wetlands Research Program (WRP) now underway at the Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg , MS. While the timetables for the WRP and thi s effort do not fully coincide, WRP outputs could be available during the actual implementation of the demonstration program should it be authorized and funded . WRP work units in the area of wetlands restoration and enhancement are comprehensive in nature and will include studies on a broad variety of wetland types and management methods . Work units in the area of wetlands creation are principally directed at the development of criteria for assessing the succ ess or value of artificially created wetlands , which is information vital to the development of bank crediting procedures. The wetlands creation issue has an important policy component which must also be addressed . Wetlands can be created either through (1) excavation or diking and flooding of fast-land in order to create the desirable hydrol ogic conditions conducive to the 18 growth of hydrophytic vegetation, or (2) filling in deep water environments (with dredged material , for example) to create the same conditions. The latter method has the effect of sacrificing one type of high quality env ironm ent in order to create another, and raises important questions . The principal question to be addressed in this case is, under what circumstances is the filling of deep water habitats justified and appropriate for the purpose of wetlands mitigation banking? Are the tradeoffs worth it? Are there standard planning and decision-making criteria that might apply? d. Advanced or After-The-Fact Compensation Most definitions of wetlands mitigation banking in common usage specify that wetland mitigation banks provide for the advanced compensation of wetland lo sses . Those who advocate that the use of bank credits be limited to the compensation of anticipated wetland losse s do so largely for fish and wildlife reasons , i.e. to avoid even the most temporary loss of habitat which might have adverse ecological impacts on local and regional fish and wildlife populations. Under certain conditions these impacts could be irreversible and the reason for the se concerns is therefore understandable. On the other hand , rigid adherence to the concept of advanced compensation tends to overlook the quality scale which is inherent in habitat valuation and the fact that compensating in advance for habitats at the low end of the scale might not be as essential as those at the upper end. Examination of this issue should also recognize that compensation after-the-fact need not result in the net loss of wetland habitat value if losses, and the credits needed to replace them, are computed based on average annual equivalents. Still another side to this issue has to do with compensation for loss of the recognized physical functions of wetlands which have no critical biological processes associated with them . For example, is it essential to effect the advanced compensation for , say, loss of flood detention or groundwater recharge capability. The study should provide an objective examination of this issue with a view to identifying those circumstances in which the mandated establishment and operation of wetland mitigation banks should be for the advanced compensation of wetland losses opposed to those circumstances in which banks could function on a more coincident or after-the-fact basis. e. Out-Of-Kind Mitigation The ability to replace lost wetland functions and values in-kind may not be possible in all wetland mitigation banking situations. Nor is it necessary or desirable to do so as long as basic compensatory mitigation goals are met. Implicit in this objective is the ability to effect tradeoffs among wetland types , functions , scales of quality, and acreage in the development of bank crediting and debiting arrangements. There are precedents for such tradeoffs in several existing wetland mitigation banks which have been negotiated on a case by case basis . The Administration's comprehensive wetlands protection plan would provide for satisfaction of permit conditions if it can be shown that the mitigation credits in banks are from the same or higher wetland category than the wetland areas which are subject to development. Out-of-kind tradeoffs are implicit in this policy statement whose implementation guidelines are yet to be developed. Conceivably, implementation can benefit from an analysis of underlying issues. Issue Identification Existing examples of banks which involved qualitative and quantitative tradeoffs have met with total success in some cases and evident failure in others. At issue are the needs to examine the causative factors behind the indifferent results and to explore the development of standardized criteria and procedures for effecting tradeoffs . f. Crediting and Debiting Techniques Lack of tools for the quantitative rating and evaluation of wetland functions is one of the most serious issues to be faced in this study. While techniques for quantifying fish and wildlife habitat value are well developed and provide the principal basis for crediting and debiting in most existing wetland mitigation banks, available methodologies (WET for example) for quantifying other recognized functions do not now have the precision which is necessary for this purpose. What makes this a somewhat critical issue is the fact that one of the legal motivations behind wetlands mitigation banking are the EPA Section 404(b )( 1) Guidelines which emphasize the existence of multiple wetland functions . Implicit in this is the necessity to put debiting and crediting procedures on the same basis. The refinement of WET to both increase the number of wetland functions capable of evaluation and to give it a greater degree of precision is another timely feature of the Waterways Experiment Station Wetland Research Program. Outputs of the WRP as well as allied research and development work known to be underway in EPA should have direct application to the development of broad scope debiting and crediting procedures for use in wetlands mitigation banking . 19 Issue Identification There is also a policy component to the crediting and debiting issue which should be examined pending the outcome of R & D efforts: what should be the exact scope of the debiting and crediting procedures in given wetland situations? Is it necessary to quantitatively evaluate all of the recognized wetland functions and incorporate them into debiting and crediting arrangements in all banking situations? Or, alternatively, is there a shorter list of functions or perhaps surrogates which are adequate for this purpose? g. The Federal Interest and Agency Authority One of the factors limiting the growth of wetland mitigation banking for regulated activities is reported to be the lack of initiative on the part of potential bank sponsors, even in situations where the feasibility and desirability of wetland mitigation banks are obvious. In situations such as these, should the Corps of Engineers assume direct responsibility and take the initiative in the establishment and operation of banks? Assuming that the Corps does not now have the authority with which to initiate such actions or the required funding, should such a uthority and funding be sought? Should the authority be a general one or be sought in a case by case basis? While there are no existing precedents for federal initiative and funding s upport for the establishment of regulatory-type banks, this condition could change with passage of certain legislation which is being considered by the Congress at the present time. For example, the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 has given the Federal Highway Administration authority to cost share the establishment of off-site wetland mitigation banks . Also, pending legislation reauthorizing the Clean Water Act could give EPA similar funding authority . 20 Should the Corps of Engineers also seek such authority? The same essential line of inquiry extends to the Corps of Engineers water resource development program. In the case of large projects requiring specific congressional authorization the authority to establish banks would of course be sought at the same time. Therefore large projects are not at issue. On the other hand, the allied issues of the federal interest and the Corps authority as they apply to continuing authority projects and projects in an operating mode are germane. The Administration's comprehensive wetlands protection plan expresses a preference for development of a market oriented mitigation banking system providing incentives for private restoration or creation of wetlands that can be used to mitigate the effects of developed wetlands. However, the details of that plan are not yet available and it is not known at this juncture if it would have the effect of limiting the federa l interest to banks of this type . Suffice it to say, definition of the federal interest is a dynamic situation which demands close attention because of the controlling influence it will have on the direction and outcome of the study. If, indeed, the federal interest ultimately is limited to market oriented banks developed under the initiative of the private sector, presumably there would still be a regulatory responsibility in monitoring the operation of the banks in order to assure that compensatory mitigation objectives are met. The exact nature of this responsibility, and the specific manner in which the Corps of Engineers fulfills its role is within the scope of this issue (see also Paragraph 4k below). h. Costs and Cost Effectiveness Published information about the costs of wetlands mitigation banking is scant and could be one of the factors constraining broader application of the concept. A reliable basis for cost estimation covering all facet s of wetlands mitigation banking is important to all entities potentially involved in banking, espec ially permittees and potential bank sponsors , be they public or private . The issue of costs is also important to the Corps because of the bearing it has on the analysis of alternatives in the review of permit applications and in the determination of cost effectiveness of mitigation in its own water resource development program . The ca s e studies involved in the early stages of the study will include a thorough review of wetlands mitigation banking costs . i. Geographic Scope of Wetlands Mitigation Banking In enacting the wetlands enhancement and restoration provisions in Section 307(d) of WRDA 90, Congress expressed an interest in "the appropriate geographic scope for which wetlands lo ss may be offset by restoration, enhancement, and creation efforts" (Subsection (3)(C)). In fish and wildlife terms it is desirable for wetland mitigation banks to be located in the same biotic region as the anticipated losses being compensated in order to maintain the physical continuity , ecological integrity and use patterns of the wetland habitats involved . In practice this is generally interpreted to refer to in-kind replacement environments located as close to the area of impact as possible. Because of the indefinite nature of this rule- of-thumb, the geographic scope of existing banks varies quite widely , but presumably without undo Issue Identification impact on their effectiveness. On the other hand , what is not clear in the literature on wetlands mitigation banking is how many potential banking efforts might have been frustrated due to lack of av ailable wetland re sources meeting these rough location criteria ? U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service criteria for establishment of wetland mitigation banks also specify that they be located in the same State in which the wetland losses occur. This criterion is in recognition of the proprietary interest which the States have in the management of their fish and wildlife resources . On the other hand, the Administration's comprehensive wetlands protection plan states a preference for mitigation within major hydrological uni ts which may cross State lines (emphasis added). This potential conflict in the siting of banks bears close examination. When the compensation of wetland losses involves other than fish and wildlife values the jurisdictional problem presumably is not as critical. However, the question of geographic scope remains problematic since there are no known wetland mitigation banks which have involved other than fi sh and wildlife resources to serve as precedents and no known studies into either the technical or policy dimensions of the problem. For example, how far off-site could a bank be located in order to replace , say , the flood detention or shoreline protection functions of wetlands in a wetlands mitigation banking context. The geographic scope of wetlands mitigation banking , particularly when geared to the compensation of multiple wetland functions and values remains very much at issue and an essential aspect of this study. j. Ownership and Liability Another concern expressed by Congress in Section 307(d) of WRDA 90 has to do with the question of ownership and liability relating to restoration, creation and enhancement areas . Existing wetland 21 Issue Identification mitigation banks are located on either privately owned lands, leased or acquired in fee by bank sponsors, or on publicly owned lands under agreement between bank sponsors and the public land managing agency (several existing banks are located on state and federal wildlife refuges with wetland restoration efforts funded by bank sponsors). Typically , highway departments, the principal sponsors of wetland mitigation banks , transfer title to bank lands to a state resource agency for perpetual management. In the case of the private Fina la Terre WMB there has been no transfer of management responsibility and the company retains title to the lands . The Bureau of Reclamation's Bonneville, Utah mitigation bank was initially acquired by Burec, with title later transferred to the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources. Ownership per se presents no evident problems . What is perhaps of greater interest to Congress are the means used to assure that banking objectives are met. Most existing banks involve MOA's (memoranda of agreement) which spell out details pertaining to management objectives, management techniques , crediting and debiting procedures, long-term operation, and provisions for corrective actions in the event of failure , together with the responsibilities of all signatory parties. The Fina la Terre MOA, for example, was signed by the company, U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service, National Marine Fisheries Service, Soil Conservation Service, Louisiana Department of Natural Resources and Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries . The enforceability of the typical MOA is, however, unknown. Also unknown is the extent to which deeds to banks might contain real estate covenants to assure that their objectives are met. Short (1988) notes just one instance, i.e . Burec's Bonneville, Utah mitigation bank, in which the deed transferring title to the state included a reversionary clause in the event of nonconformance . General uncertainty about the legal status of banks and the liability to assure that their 22 objectives are met therefore constitute important issues. From two standpoints, the permit process itself may be an effective guarantor that banks meet their stated objectives. First, to the extent that any wetland restoration or creation efforts involve the discharge of dredged or fill material requiring a Department of the Army permit, the Corps of Engineers is in a position to monitor the effectiveness of such actions as a matter if regulatory routine and facilitate any necessary corrections in the event failures are detected. Second, inasmuch as the approval of potential permittees to debit banks for compensatory mitigation purposes would take the form of permit conditions, the Corps presumably has at its disposal various administrative and legal means to achieve compliance with the terms of their establishment and operation and thereby assure their success. The study should examine the extent to which existing Corps of Engineers regulatory mitigation policies and procedures cover these aspects. k. Monitoring A final concern expressed by the Congress in Section 307(d) pertains to responsibilities for short-and long- term monitoring. The previous section concerned monitoring in a more or less physical context and suggested that this would primarily be a Corps of Engineers responsibility, particularly if the wetland restoration and creation efforts themselves entail regulated activities (i.e . the discharge of dredged or fill material). However, in this discussion the term monitoring is used in an operational context which includes the continuous evaluation of wetland management efforts , conduct of the crediting and debiting process and determination of remaining credit balances over the lives of the banks --in other words, the role of the "banker." Some relevant questions as they pertain to regulatory- type banks are: who is principally responsible for these monitoring functions? The bank sponsor? Federal agencies , including the Corps of Engineers? State re source and/or regulatory agencies? Or should it be a collective responsibility? These questions are relevant even in the case of strictly privately owned banks which might be established and operated for profit. Irrespective of ownership or sponsorship, there is an abiding public interest in the resources involved in banks which springs from the basic regulatory authority behind their establishment. This in turn is believed to dictate a continuing public sector role in their monitoring and evaluation. The remaining questions concern ( 1) the extent of the public monitoring role, (2) the actual assignment (or acceptance) of responsibility, and (3) who should pay . If federal agencies are involved in monitoring, should their role be a passive one involving only casual oversight, or should it be a more proactive role involving commitment of significant levels of effort and funding? The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , which is now the principal federal actor in wetlands mitigation banking , has expressed concern over the high manpower and financial costs which their active participation now entails. Presumably the Corps of Engineers would have similar concerns should it in future find itself Issue Identification similarly involved. These questions would become particularly significant were banks to proliferate beyond the rel ative few which are now in existence nationwide. Specific to the subject of monitoring costs, in federal water projects mitigation costs are normally regarded as project costs which are allocated and apportioned in accordance with project purposes and presumably the monitoring of project related banks would be treated the same way . But how should costs be borne in the case of regulated activities? Should permittees or bank sponsors bear all costs associated with banks , including short-and long-term monitoring, or should the federal agencies continue the present practice of assuming the costs of their involvement? (refer also to paragraph 4g above which discusses the federal interest and responsibility in wetlands mitigation banking). If permittees or sponsors pay monitoring costs, sho uld this be in the form of a one-time fee paid into an escrow account or trust fund, for example, or should it be billed and paid on a piecemeal basis as periodic monitoring is performed ? There are reported to be legal constraints which currently prevent Federal agencies from receiving funds from privately held trusts under certain circumstances --the legal and administrative aspect of this potential problem must also be examined in the context of monitoring . 23 BLANK PAGE (Skip) 24 REFERENCES CITED Adamus, Paul R . et al , 1987 : Wetland Evaluation Technique (WET), Volume II -Methodology. U.S . Anny Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, 209 pp . Adamus, Paul R . et al, 198 2: A Method for Wetland Functional Assessment, Volume I. Critical Review and Evaluation Concepts, and Volume II, The Method. U .S. Department of Transportation , Federal Highway Administration, Office of Re searc h, Environmental Divis ion , Was hington, D .C., 164 pp. Comiskey J.J. and Eugene Z. Stakhiv, 1983 : Applications of Mitigation Banking to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Programs . U.S . Anny Corps of Engineers, Water Resources Support Center, Institute for Water Resources, Fort Belvoir, VA, Policy Study 83-G590 (draft), 185 pp. Conservation Foundation, 1988 : Protecting America's Wetlands: An Action Agenda. The Conservation Foundation, Washington, D .C., 69 pp . Dell , David A., 1991 : Habitat re-evaluation of Fina LaTerre Mitigation Bank Management Area 5-years After Implementation. Internal memorandum, U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service , Fish and Wildlife Enhancement , Lafayette, LA. Reppert , Richard, 1992 : Draft Plan of Study for Wetlands Mitigation Banking Demonstration Study , U.S. Army Institute for Water Resources , Fort Belvoir, VA., 54 pp . Short , Cathleen, 1988: Mitigation Banking. U.S . Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Research and Development, Washington, D .C., Biological Report 88(41), 103 pp. Soileau , David M ., 1984: Final Report on the Tenneco LaTerre Corporation Mitigation Banking Proposal, Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Eco lo gical Services, Lafayette , Loui siana, 23 pp. plus appendices . Steever, Zel, 1991 : Wetlands Mitigation Banking. U.S . Army Corps of Engineers, Draft working paper. U .S . Environmental Protection Agency, 1991 : Wetlands Mitigation Banking Summary Report (draft contractor's report). U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990 : Meeting the President's Challenge -Wetlands Action Plan. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, W as hington , D .C., 63 pp . U.S . Fish a nd Wildlife Service , 1980 : Habitat Evaluation Procedures. Eco lo gical Services Manual, 102 - ESMl , Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C . 25 fl National Society of Professional Engineers® Signatory, NSPE Licensed Member I NATIONAL WETLAND MITIGATION BANKING STUDY Expanding Opportunities for Successful Mitigation: The Private Credit Market Alternative Institute for Water Resources Water Resources Support Center U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Alexandria, Virginia 22315 Prepared by Leonard Shabman Virginia Tech University Blacksburg, Virginia and Paul Scodari Dennis King King and Associates Washington, DC (This work is among others of the National Wetland Mitigation Banking Study and represents an example of possible options for wetland mitigation banking. The findings and recommendations do not represent the position of the Department of the Army.) January 1994 IWR Report 94-WMB-3 National Wetland Mitigation Banking Study This report is part of a series of reports which are being published during the National Study. General background information pertaining to wetland mitigation banking and the scope of the national study were the subjects of a report published during the first year of the study. Wetlands Mitigation Banking Concepts !WR Report 92-WMB-l, prepared by Richard Reppert, Institute/or Water Resources, July 1992, 25pp. A number of reports presenting the results of the first phase of the Nationa l Study are expected to published in 1994, in addition to this report. Among these reports: Wetland Mitigation Banks: A Resource Document !WR R eport 94-WMB-2, prepared by the Environmental Law In stitute and the Institute for Water R esources. This report presents bank-specific information obtained by the national study in its inventory of banks and detailed case study histories of 22 wetland mitigation banks. The report also includes an annotated wetland mitigation banking bibliography and a summary of study findings on fee-based compensatory mitigation. First phase report !WR Report 94-WMB-4, prepared by R obert Brumbaugh and Richard R eppert, Institute for Water R eso urces. Summation of.findings of phase one of the national wetland mitigation banking study and recommendations for the final study phase. An Examination of Wetland Programs: Opportunities for Compensatory Mitigation !WR R eport 94-WMB-5, prepared by Apogee R esearch, In c. Sixty eight programs that conduct or facilitate wetland restoration or creation were identified that might be applicable to compensatory wetland mitigation. Fourteen programs with the greatest potential are profiled in more detail. For further information on the National Wetland Mitigation Banking Study, contact either: Dr. Robert W. Brumbaugh Study Manager Institute for Water Resources Casey Building 770 1 Telegraph Road A lexandria, VA 22315-3868 Telephone: (703) 355-3069 Dr. Eugene Z. Stakhiv Chief, Policy and Special Studies Division lnstitutefor Water Resources Casey Building 7701 Telegraph Road Alexandria, VA 22315-3868 Telephone: (703) 355-2370 R eports may be ordered by writing (above address) or calling Arlene Nurthen, !WR Publications, at (703) 355-3042. TABLE OF C ONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii On-Site Mitigation and Off-Site Mitigation Banking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Private Versus Public Credit Markets ...................................................... viii The Benefits of Private Credit Markets ..................................................... viii Necessary Conditions for the Emergence and Success of Private Credit Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ . A The Private Credit Market Alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 B . The Benefits of Private Credit Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 C. Study Objectives and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 D . Plan of the Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 II . WETLAND REGULATION AND MITIGATION CREDIT MARKETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 A The Section 404 Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 l . Mitigation Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2. Compensatory Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l O 3. Regulatory Flexibility and Compensatory Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l O B. Wetland Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 C. Mitigation Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 l . Single-User Mitigation Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2 . Public Commercial Banks and Fee-Based Mitigation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3. Mitigation Credit Markets : Private Commercial Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 D . Meshing Development and Environmental Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 E . Demand an d Sup p ly for Credits: Basic Economic Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 F . Understanding the Effects of Regulatory Policies on Pri vate Credit Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 III . TRADING RULE REFORMS TO PROMOTE CREDIT MARKET SYSTEMS AND LIMIT AND ALLOCATE MITIGATION FAILURE RISK ................................... 23 A Timing of Credit Marketability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 B. Performance, Monitoring and Maintenance , and Long-Term Management Standards ............ 25 C. Liability Rules for Private Credit Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 l . Higher Trading Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2. Performance Bonds ................................................................ 29 3. Co ll ateral Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0 4. Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 D . Credit Valuation and Trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Ill IV. REGULATORY RULE REFORMS TO FACILITATE PRIVATE CREDIT MARKETS .............. 35 A Facilitating Market Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 1. Consistency in Mitigation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5 2 . Competition from Public Banks ...................................................... 35 3. Regulat io n of Private Credit Prices ................................................... 36 4. Market Area Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 8 B . Watershed Planning and Management ................................................. 38 1. Accompli shing Watershed Planning for Wetlands Categorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 9 V . CONCLUSIONS : REGULATORY RULES TO FACILITATE PRIVATE COMMERCIAL BANKING ......................................................................... 43 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 7 APPENDIX I. CREDIT V ALVA TION AND TRADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 A. Credit Valuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 I. Valuation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 2. Valuation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 B . Credit Trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 APPENDIXII . GENERAL INTERVIEW RESULTS ............................................. 57 A Bank Entrepreneurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 7 B . Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 C. Resource Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 LIST OF FIGURES Figure l : Linked Objectives : Objectives of Regulators, Permit Applicants, and Credit Suppliers . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 2 : Regional Economic Effects on the Potential for Mitigation Credit Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 3 : Regulatory Policies Influence Wetland Mitigation Credit Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Figure 4: Change in Confidence in Restoration Success Over Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 lV This report was prepared as part of the National Wetland Mitigation Banking Study conducted by the Institute for Water Resources (IWR), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The study on pri vate credit market alternatives was directed by Robert Brumbaugh, manager of the National Wetland Mitigation Banking Study. The Assistant Secretary of the Army for Civil Works was given authority for the study as provided in Section 307(d) the Water Resources Development Act of 1990. The National Wetland Mitigation Banking Study is conducted within the IWR Policy and Special Studies Division, whose chief is Eugene Z. Stakhiv. This report and the national study has benefitted from Eugene Stakhiv's review and g uidance throughout the course of the ongoing effort. Kyle Schilling is the Director of IWR. Richard Worthington has provided study oversight for the Directorate of Civil Works, Headquarters of the U.S. Army Corp s of Engineers (HQUSACE). We gratefully acknowledge the following individuals who provided information and personal viewpoints for this study through telephone and/or personal interviews : Joseph Agozino, Arthur Berger, Ken Bierley, Chet Bigelow, Kevin Carr, Cathy Chatman, Loren Clark, Douglas Davis, C.J. Ebbert, Oliver Edstrom, Carrie Fox , Douglas Frederick, Sarah Gannett, Edward Garbisch, James Griswald, Richard Hopen, Terry Huffman, David ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS John, Mark Krauss, Jon Kusler , James Levine , Robin Lewis, Richard Morgan, Robert Neil , Phillip Oshita , Ralph Pasquale , Dean Prigmore, John Reiger, Michael Rolband , Brooks Stillwell , Ron Stouffer, Elizabeth White, and Robert Will. In addition, comments on draft MOAs or permits for particular banks written by Donald Burgess, David Farrell, John Forren , Bradley Hartman , Andreas Mager, and Thomas Welborn were also reviewed as part of the study . Finally, we gratefully acknowledge the helpful comments on an earlier version of this report provided by Robert Brumbaugh, Richard Reppert, and Eugene Stakhiv of the IWR national study team. Robert Brumbaugh also provided text on wetland assessment methodology that was incorporated in the main body of text and in Appendix I. Other very helpful comments were provided by Michael Davis and Julie Metz (Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Army, Civil Works), Jack Chowning (HQUSACE Regulatory Branch) Ralph Heimlich (then of U.S . EPA), Thoma s Kelsch (U.S . EPA), and Robin Lewis (Tampa , Florida). Clearly, we received different views and perspectives from these many people . Therefore, in the challenge of reflecting all viewpoints some are, of necessity, not represented in this report. As a re s ult , the findings and conclusions of this report are the authors' alone and do not represent the views of those who were interviewed or commented on prior drafts . v BLANK PAGE (Click here to skip) Vl This report: (I) explains the concept and functioning of private markets in wetland mitigation credits ; (2) describes the potential for private credit markets to help the Federal wetland regulatory program achieve the national goal of no- net-loss in wetland function and acreage ; and (3) explains the regulatory conditions necessary for the widespread emergence and ecological success of this mitigation alternative . Mitigation credit markets are a special case of "mitigation banking". Mitigation banks are large areas of replacement wetlands created for the express purpose of providing off-site compensatory mitigation for more than one future wetland development project. The vast majority of mitigation banks in operation today are single-user banks; that is, each was developed by a single large public or private developer to provide only for its own future mitigation needs. By contrast, private mitigation credit markets would encourage entrepreneurs to establish commercial mitigation banks from which credits would be sold to wetland developers in need of compensatory mitigation . Such markets could help the nation achieve no-net- loss of wetlands by increasing the opportunity to obtain successful compensatory mitigation for permitted wetland losses . On August 23 , 1993 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency issued guidance to their field offices on mitigation banking . The guidance, which was endorsed by the Clinton Administration's Wetland Plan, provides a policy framework and conditions for the use of mitigation banking. On-Site Mitigation and Off-Site Mitigation Banking The "mitigation sequencing" rules of the Federal wetland regulatory program require EXECUTIVE SUMMARY developers (i .e ., permit applicants) to first avoid and minimize wetland impacts to the extent practicable, and then mitigate any remaining impacts that cannot be reasonably avoided . Compensatory mitigation is expected in the form of wetlands created from uplands, the restoration of former or severely degraded wetland areas, or by enhancing the functioning of existing wetlands. These compensatory mitigations, which are expected to be constructed on-site (i .e ., at the permitted site) if practicable, are called mitigation credits . Although Federal wetland regulations emphasize the use of on-site mitigation to compensate for unavoidable wetland impacts , the rules provide that the use of off-site mitigation banks may be an acceptable alternative in certain situations . Mitigation banking offers the opportunity to obtain compensation for wetland impacts caused by multiple independent or linear development projects by locating a single, large- scale wetland mitigation project elsewhere in the watershed. Developers favor mitigation banking because it can reduce the costs and delays often associated with the permit review process . Regulators are interested in mitigation banking because of its potential ecological advantages. For example, mitigation banks typically involve large- scale replacement wetlands that can in many instances more effectively maintain ecosystem function than isolated on-site mitigation projects . Despite the potential of off-site mitigation banking to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of wetland regulation, its use to date has been very limited . This is because traditional single-user banking arrangements are necessarily limited to those large public and private developers that routinely undertake many independent or linear development projects and can afford a substantial up-front investment in Vll Executive Summary compensatory mitigation. In addition , regulatory and resource agencies and the environmental community often have been reluctant to endorse mitigation banking because of the perception that it may lead to the "buying" of permits. Private Versus Public Credit Markets Mitigation credit markets offer the opportunity to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of compensatory mitigation by providing the banking option to a wider set of permit applicants . Indeed, toward this end a number of states and localities across the nation have established public conunercial banks and public fee-based mitigation systems (sometimes referred to a "in-lieu" fee systems). Public conunercial banks offer mitigation credits for sale to the general public, and use the proceeds from credit sales to recoup the costs of bank construction and management. Similarly , public fee-based systems charge permit fees for projects involving small wetland impacts in 1 ieu of the direct provision of mitigation by pem1ittees . Fee revenues are accumulated in trust funds for the intended future provision of replacement wetlands by the government entity . While the broader establishment of these two types of public m1t1gation systems could potentially extend the advantages of mitigation banking to a wider set of permit applicants , important obstacles must first be overcome. One major problem for establishing public banks involves the substantial up-front public financing needed for bank construction and management. Public fee-based systems may also face financing pro bl ems since there is no guarantee that fee revenues accumulated in trust funds for replacement wetlands will not be diverted to other uses . Moreover, both types of public mitigation systems face the risk that fee revenues will be insufficient to cover the full costs of providing compensatory mitigation for the fill activity they serve . Vlll Unlike conunercial mitigation banking by public entities, a private credit market system would tap the profit motive to encourage private entrepreneurs to produce mitigation credits with private capital. If entrepreneurs emerge to sell credits to many possible buyers , a private market for wetland functions would develop. Market competition could ensure that mitigation credits were provided at least cost, and provide incentives for the further development of wetland restoration technologies as credit supply firms seek out more successful mitigation techniques. The Benefits of Private Credit Markets The most obvious benefit from private credit market systems is the opportunity to secure mitigation for the many small wetland impacts that would otherwise go unmitigated . For example, under general permits, compensatory mitigation is often not required when wetland alterations are so small that the possibility of on-site mitigation is deemed impractical or infeasible . The cumulative impact of many such small wetland losses is one cause of slippage from the no-net-loss goal. The widespread establishment of private credit market systems cou ld correct this deficiency by making credits available for sale in small increments. Regulators could then require compensatory mitigation in cases involving small wetland impacts by having developers purchase equivalent credits from established private conunercial banks . Credit market systems could also have broader application to permitted development projects involving more significant wetland impacts. Current wetland regulations emphasize the on-site mitigation option in the hope that important site-specific wetland functions, such as stormwater retention and erosion control , will be retained at the site affected by the fill activity . However, wetland development projects also impact wildlife habitat and ecological "life- support" functions which may be transferable to other locations within watersheds. The opportunity to successfully replace lost habitat and life-support functions may often be improved by conducting mitigation away from the development site . For example, if the preference for on-site mitigation is applied in an inflexible manner, opportunities to obtain more environmentally desirable mitigation may be forgone. This can occur if permitting decisions pay too little attention to the possible fragmentation , isolation , and functional degradation of the wetlands preserved at the fill site and the replacement wetlands provided by in-kind and on- site mitigation . Allowing the purchase of private market credits in certain cases , instead of requiring on-site mitigation , could also enable regulators to avoid the several institutional sources of failure associated with on-site mitigation. Foremost among these are problems of enforcement: 1. When permits are granted conditional on the provision of mitigation, typically "on-site and in-kind", often no compensation effort is ever made . 2. If mitigation is initiated, regulators often do not have the time to check the mitigation plans for technical quality and feasibility or to check the construction practices which execute plans. 3. Often there are too few resources to allow for regulatory monitoring of mitigation projects that are constructed. 4 . If a mitigation project is monitored and determined to have failed, there may be no responsible party liable for rectifying that failure. 5 . If a mitigation project is constructed and judged successful in the short term, often there is no assurance that the mitigation site Executive Summary will be maintained as a wetland into the future . The credit market alternative could greatly reduce the institutional and ecological sources of on-site mitigation failure inherent in the current regulatory program by leading to the following outcomes . 1. Private credit markets would tap and combine mitigation expertise, planning, and capital in a manner that is typically not possible with on- site mitigation projects . Then if a permit applicant had the option of buying credits from an established bank that had already planned for or provided replacement wetlands, there would be less chance that the permit applicant's compensatory mitigation requirement would go unfulfilled . 2 . The consolidated mitigation projects provided by private banks would enable the regulatory agency to concentrate its limited oversight and monitoring resources on a much smaller number of mitigation sites . 3 . Regulators would have more leverage and a greater variety of tools for imposing cost liability for mitigation failure in the banking option since regulators could dictate the conditions under which banks could be utilized. 4. Private banks would reduce the problem of ecologically vulnerable mitigation sites by consolidating what would otherwise be many isolated and fragmented on-site mitigation projects into a relatively few areas of replacement wetlands that could be sited and constructed according to watershed goals . 5 . The increased likelihood of successful replacement wetlands and available mitigation credits would make the evaluation of permit applications more focused on issues concerning the need for the permit and the lX Executive Summary ecological value of the impacted wetland if the permit is or is not granted . Indeed , the se advantages have been recognized by entrepreneurs and wetland regulators in many areas of the country, and two private commercial mitigation banks--the "Millhaven Plantation Bank" in Screven and Burke counties, Georgia , and the "Florida Wetlandsbank" in Pembroke Pines , Florida--have already obtained Federal permission to create and sell mitigation credits under the Section 404 regulatory program. Moreover, across the nation the challenge of creating regulations conducive to private credit market systems is actively being discussed in a number of states and localities . Necessary Conditions for the Emergence and Success of Private Credit Markets The two newly-permitted and a dozen or so prospective credit suppliers (i.e., private commercial bankers) across the country were interviewed as part of this study . They expected a strong demand for this alternative way of satisfying mitigation requirements provided that it could be made acceptable to regulatory and resource agencies . The study interviews generally suggest that a ready supply of mitigation credits would emerge from entrepreneurs in many areas of the country provided that the conditions for market operation established by regulators enabled credit suppliers to earn a competitive return on investment. But wetland regulators have legitimate concerns about whether the bank mitigation projects from which credits are sold will succeed over time. The emergence of the private market alternative and its ability to improve the effectiveness of compensatory mitigation depends on the capacity of regulators to fashion trading and regulatory rules that provide enforceable environmental safeguards without being cost- prohibitive. x This report describes in detail the types of trading and regulatory rules that could be used to promote the establi shment and use of private credit market systems to simultaneously satisfy the goals of regulators, permit applicants , and private credit suppliers. Its conclusions and recommendations for facilitating the emergence and success of private commercial banking center around seven major themes : • Allow Early Credit Sales Regulator concerns about allowing the use of private credit markets to satisfy mitigation requirements center around the risk of mitigation failure. This concern may tempt regulators to require private commercial bank mitigations to be in place and fully functioning before they could be used as compensatory mitigation. Use of this risk-minimizing strategy in the credit market context would force private banks to bear the full costs of waiting for the maturation of replacement wetlands (i.e ., opportunity costs of invested capital) as well as all failure risk costs. However, these costs would probably be too high for most private commercial mitigation banks to earn a competitive return on investment. If a market-based trading system is to operate , there must be opportunities for private banks to sell credits before replacement wetlands reach functional maturity or self-maintenance, and in some cases, perhaps even at the time mitigation is initiated . Early credit sales may be warranted when the bank site and mitigation plan (including expertise) is favorable for mitigation success, and bank rules have been established to limit failure risk and allocate cost liability for failure . • Establish Bank Standards for Performance, Monitoring and Maintenance, and Long-Term Management Regulators must clarify in advance the "contract" conditions for credit suppliers in "Memoranda of Agreement" and/or regulatory permits . The agreements recorded in these contracts should specify (in addition to bank s1tmg , design , and construction specifications): performance standards that define the conditions under which mitigation projects would be judged successful ; monitoring and maintenance requirements to detect and correct deficiencies and ; provisions to ensure long-term site management. Performance standards should provide some leeway to account for less-than-extreme natural events which might cause bank m1t1gations to evolve along somewhat different paths than originally planned . • Allocate Cost Liability for Mitigation Failure In order to ensure mitigation quality control while maintaining the economic viability of private credit markets, regulators shou ld allocate to credit suppliers those failure risk costs resulting from non-performance with contract requirements regarding the design, performance, and management of mitigation projects, but not for extreme events (e.g ., a catastrophic hurricane) which prevent credit suppliers from fulfilling contract obligations. • Assure that Liability Rules Reflect Realistic Failure Probabilities and Repair Costs There are a variety of mechanisms that could be included in the contracts for mitigation suppliers to allocate cost liability for mitigation failure. These mechanisms, which Executive Summary include higher trading ratios, performance bonds, leases with collateral banks, and insurance systems, should be viewed as substitutes for each other whose use could vary by situation. Moreover , the level of risk cost (i.e ., financial assurance) established by liability rules in any particular mitigation case must be reasonable in consideration of realistic failure probabilities and repair costs for that case . • Establish Rules for Credit Valuation and Trading The establishment of private commercial credit market systems requires that the type and level of wetlands functions and ecological values at the bank site be specified . Only if such a functional assessment is conducted will it be possible to judge how many credits have been created for sale. Bank specific rules should be established for determining how credits will be defined and their level assessed. There are several methods which have been used in mitigation decisions for defining mitigation credits and determining the compensation needed when granting a permit. Current banking experience shows that there are as many ways in which such methods can be used as there are different banks. Additional development of these assessment techniques for all types of permit and mitigation decisions should be expected. In addition , rules are needed to defme the types and sizes of wetland development impacts for which credits can be used to provide compensatory mitigation, as well as the geographic service area of banks . As with credit definition and evaluation, rules defining bank market and service area would necessarily depend on case-and area-specific factors and goals . XI Executive Summary • Make Regulatory Reforms to Enhance Market Trading Xll The benefits of private credit markets would be maximized if a sufficient number of credit supply firms enter the market , making the s upply of credits adequate for mitigation needs . To encourage market entry there must be consistency in the mitigation requirements for banks and on-site mitigation projects ; there should be no price controls placed on credits produced by private commercial banks and ; the market area over which credits may be sold should not be too narrowly proscribed . Finally, if private banks are to be encouraged, public banks and in-lieu fee systems should establish full-cost pricing of credits to ensure that such public mitigation systems do not s ubsidize wetland development and undercut the private cred it market alternative . • Incorporate Credit Markets into Watershed Planning and Management If the wetland regulatory program were integrated with regional or local watershed planning initiatives , the feasibility and success of private credit markets could be improved . National wetland policy has advanced significantly over the twenty years since wetland protection emerged as a national environmental concern. It is now generally agreed that wetland functions are worthy of protection and even enhancement from current levels . This has led to acceptance of a national goal of no-net-loss in wetland acreage and function in the short term , to be followed by net gain as the long-term goal of Federal wetland policy . Toward this end the nation has sharply reduced the primary source of wetland loss--agricultural conversions--in part through policy actions designed to reduce the economic return of these activities. Further, a variety of Federal and state wetland restoration programs have been authorized and are operating . One report estimates that since 1989 over one million acres of former wetlands were restored by Federal programs alone (Interagency Committee on Wetlands Restoration and Creation, 1992). Meanwhile, continuing efforts to clarify and improve the Federal regulatory program , the Clean Water Act Section 404 permit program, and similar state programs , have helped to define their purpose and scope and reduce wetland loss . Yet, controversy and debate continues to surround the Section 404 permit program. Even the question, "what are the boundaries of a wetland ?"--which is critical for defining the geographic extent of regulatory jurisdiction--has not yet been definitively answered. Moreover, the program's stakeholders often appear dissatisfied with various other aspects of the method and results of the regulatory program in its current form . Private property and development interests focus largely on the need to improve program efficiency. They argue that regulatory procedures are too inflexible and cumbersome, leading to unnecessary costs and delays m wetland permitting . Environmental advocates, on the other hand, focus on the need to improve the program's I . INTRODUCTION effectiveness for maintaining wetland acreage and function. One of their arguments is that the compensatory m1t1gation requirement of the existing program is not advancing the no-net-loss goal. Recently, the Clinton Administration and Congress (several bills) proposed program reforms (White House Office of Environmental Policy , I 9 9 3). One Administration proposal concerns the "compensatory mitigation" provision of wetland regulations. These regulatory prov1s1ons , discussed in detail later in this report , require that once permit applicants have made all practicable efforts to avoid and minimize wetland impacts, they must then provide compensatory mitigation for those wetland impacts that cannot be reasonably avoided . Compensatory mitigation is expected in the form of wetlands created from uplands , the restoration of former wetland areas , or the enhancement of functional wetlands. These compensatory mitigations, which are expected to be constructed "on-site and in-kind" if practicable and environmentally desirable, are called mitigation credits. In effect, compensation requirements trade impacted wet land functions for the functions of replacement wetlands at the permitted site. The regulatory requirement for compensatory mitigation is warranted by the no-net-loss goal. Unfortunately, the record of success for on-site mitigation is spotty, and there is widespread concern that net losses of jurisdictional wetlands are continuing (see: Redmond, 1990 ; Erwin, 1991 , National Research Council, 1992). To he lp remedy this problem, the Administration Wetland Plan supports the greater use of mitigation banking to obtain compensation for permitted wetland impacts . Mitigation banks are large areas of replacement wetlands created for Introduction the express purpose of providing off-site compensatory miti gation for more than one wetland de velopment project, often in advance of project impacts. Mitigation banking can reduce the costs and delays associated with the permit review pro cess, and the large-scale replacement wetlands provided by banks can often more effectively m ai ntain ecosystem integrity than several isolated, on-site mitigation projects . The Clinton Administration Wetland Pl an, noting that " ... conceptually, miti gation banking, with appropriate environmental safeg uard s, offers numerou s advantages", says that Congress should explicitly endorse the use of banking in the forthcoming re- authorization of the Clean Water Act. On August 23, 1993 , the U .S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U .S. Environmental Protection Agency issued guidance to their field offices on mitigation banking. The guidance, which was endorsed by the Administration Wetland Plan, provide a polic y framework and conditions for the use of mitigation banking . A. The Private Credit Market Alternative This report : (1) explains what a private credit market is ; (2) descri bes the potential for private markets in miti gation credits to help the Federal wetland regulatory program achieve the national goal of no-net-loss in wetland function and ac reage ; and (3) explains in detail the necessary regulatory conditions for their widespread emergence and ecological success . The report was prepared as a contribution to the U.S . Army Corps of Engineers Institute for Water Resources (IWR) "National Wetland Mitigation Banking Study". The larger IWR stud y includes a survey and analysis of the uni ver se of existing mitigation banks, and explores possible new opportunities for the use of mitigation banking in the Federal wetland regulatory program (IWR, 1994). The findings and recommendations presented in this report , however, are the authors and do not necessarily represent the position of the Department of the Army. 2 Private credit markets are a special case of mitigation banking which could help the nation achieve no-net-loss of wetlands by increasing the opportunity to obtain s ucc essful compensatory mitigation for permitted wetland losses. The vast majority of mitigation banks in operation today were each developed by a single large public or private developer to provide only for its own miti gation needs. These traditional single-user banking arrangements are necessarily limited to those large pub lic and private developers that routinely undertake many independent or linear development projects and can afford a s ubstanti a l up-front investment in compensatory mitigation. By contrast, pri vate credit market systems would develop if entrepreneurs were encouraged to establish "commercial" banks to create mitigation credits for sale to the general universe of permit applicants in need of compensatory mitigation . Pri vate credit markets offer the opportunity to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of compensatory m itigation by providing the banking option to a much wider set of permit applicants. Pri vate miti gation credit markets would tap the profit motive to encourage private entrepreneurs to produce mitigation credits with private capital. If entrepreneurs emerge to sell credits to many possi ble bu ye rs, a pri vate market for wetland functions would deve lop . Market competition could ensure that mitigation credits were provided at least cost, and provide incentives for the further deve lopment of wetland restoration technologies as credit s uppl y firms seek out more successful mitigation techniques . Federal regul ators point out that to maintain the credibility (and ultimate success) of pri vate credit market banks , the use of miti gation banks will be allowed only when it is environmentally de s irable and consistent with applicable mitigation policies . B. The Benefits of Private Credit Markets The most obvious benefit from private credit market systems is the opportunity to secure mitigation for the many small wetland impacts that would otherwise go unmitigated. For example, under many general permits, compensatory mitigation is often not required when individual wetland alterations are so small that the possibility of compensation for loss is deemed impractical or infeasible. The cumulative effect of many such small wetland lo sses , and as a result of limitations in state regulation of wetlands that fall outside Federal jurisdiction, might be judged to be a cause of slippage from the no -net-loss goal. If this was determined, the widespread establishment of private credit market systems could correct this deficiency by making credits available for sale in small increments . Regulators could then require compensatory mitigation in cases involving small wetland impacts by having developers purchase equivalent credits from established private commercial banks . Credit market systems could also have broader app lic ation to regulated development projects involving more significant wetland impacts. Curren t regulations emphasize the on-site mitigation option in the hope that important site- specific wetland functions , such as stormwater retention and erosion control, will be retained at the site affected by the fill activity . However, wetland development projects also impact wildlife habitat and ecological "life-support" functions which may be transferable to other locations within watersheds. In fact , the opportunity to successfully replace lost habitat and life-support functions may often be improved by conducting mitigation away from the development site . For example , if applied in an inflexible manner, the mitigation sequencing rules of the regulatory program--which require permit applicants to avoid, minimize and mitigate wetland impacts on-site--may limit the possibility of successful mitigation (as well as wetland preservation). This can occur if permitting Introduction decisions pay too little attention to the fragmentation , isolation and functional degradation of wetlands preserved as a result of avoidance and impact minimization, or of wetland replacements provided by on-site mitigation efforts . Commercial and residential development twisting among preserved wetlands are the product of regulatory rul es which stress wetland avoidance and impact minimization. And wetlands in the midst of concrete parking lots are the product of the regulatory preference for on-site compensatory mitigation. As a result, many preserved and replacement wetlands have diminished ecological functions from polluted runoff, changes in hydrologic regimes , and the fragmentation of the landscape which often isolates wetlands from surrounding uplands , waters, and biological resources of the watershed . The important implication is that when wetland functions lost as a result of permitted development are largely transferable within the watershed , it may be desirable to secure compensatory mitigation through private commercial banks. Allowing the purchase of private market credits, instead of req uirin g on-site mitigation, in certain cases could enable regulators to reduce the prospects of failure of on-site mitigation efforts. Mitigation failure occurs when a permit is granted with the expectation that compensatory mitigation will be made, typically on-site and in-kind, but either no compensation effort is ever made or there is poor quality mitigation . There have been several sources of mitigation failure with respect to the large number of on-site mitigation projects required by the regulatory program. These include : 1. Insufficient technical expertise in regulatory agencies to adequately evaluate and finalize a large number of diverse mitigation plans; 2. Lack of regulatory resources to oversee and enforce m1t1gation construction, and to conduct site monitoring over time; 3 Introduction 3. Difficulty in imposing financial assurance requirements or other liability mechanisms to account for the possibility of mitigation failure; 4. Vulnerability of isolated and fragmented replacement wetlands to functional degradation ; and 5 . Lack of assurance that successful mitigation sites will be maintained as wetlands into the future. To understand how mitigation failure is possible it is useful to describe the existing demand for the on-site provision of mitigation credits. Permit applicants for projects involving significant wetland alterations often hire mitigation consultants to help them file permit applications and propose, design , and construct mitigation projects. In effect, these consultants sell a service of compensatory mitigation to permit applicants. The quality of that service demanded by the permit applicant is determined by the degree of oversight on the compensato ry mitigation requirement exercised by the regulatory agency. If the only condition on an issued permit to develop a wetland is that there be a regulator-approved plan for mitigation, then once the permit is issued there is a limited incenti ve for the permit applicant to go beyond this "paper mitigation". If the regulatory agency monitors the progress of the mitigation and has some enforcement tools to ensure that it is done , then mitigation is more likely to be initiated . However, even if the m1t1gation is initiated, regulators often do not have the necessary technical expertise or the time to check the feasibility and quality of mitigation plans, or to check the construction practices which execute the plans . Then, even if these early checks are accomplished, often there are too few resources to provide for regulatory monitoring of mitigation sites. And, if replacement wetlands are monitored and determined to have failed , often there is no 4 specified responsible party liable for rectifying that failure . Finally , even if replacement wetlands are successful in the short term, often there is no assurance that mitigation sites will be maintained as wetlands into the future. Given this variety of enforcement problems attributable largely to limited resources in the regulatory agency, the skepticism often expressed about compensatory mitigation is understandable . It is these institutional failures which are the cause of much mitigation failure, despite the often cited criticism of the current state-of-the-art in the science and engineering of wetlands restoration and creation. The sources of on-site mitigation failure co uld be offset in part by giving permit applicants the option of providing compensatory mitigation through private credit markets . A credit market policy begins with the recognition that permit applicants want wetland development permits but have no particular long- term interest in wet land s. The regulatory agency, on the other hand , wants to protect and restore the ecological functions of watersheds and has no central interest in the development projects of permit applicants. Meanwhile, wetland restoration firms want to profit by creating mitigation credits for sale to permit applicants, and at the same time have the quality of their work acknowledged by regulators (in order to advance their future prospects in the credit supply business). These different objectives have the potential for negotiations that can make all interests better off, which is the essence of markets. The private credit market alternative, if carefully structured, offers a competitive economic return on investment to private restoration firms and an expedited permit review process for many permit app licants. Most importantly, credit trading would benefit the public by increasing the opportunity to obtain successful compensatory mitigation for permitted wetland losses . Specifically, the credit market alternative would lead to the following outcomes which are essential for attainment of the no-net-loss goal. 1. Private credit markets would tap and combine mitigation expertise, planning , and capital in a manner that is not possible with on-site m1t1gation projects for many permit applicants. Then if a permit applicant had the option of buying credits from an established bank that had already carefully planned for or provided replacement wetlands, there would be less chance that the permit applicant's compensatory mitigation requirement would go unfulfilled. 2 . The consolidated mitigation projects provided by private banks would enab le the regulatory agency to concentrate its limited oversight and monitorin g resources on a much smaller number of mitigation sites. 3 . Regulators would have more leverage and a greater variety of tools for imposing cost liability for mitigation failure in the bariking option since regulators could dictate the conditions under which banks could create and se ll credits. 4. Private banks would reduce the problem of ecologicall y vulnerable mitigation sites by consolid ating what would otherwise be many isolated and fragmented on-site mitigation projects into relatively few areas of replacement wetland s that could be sited and constructed according to watershed goals . 5 . The reality of successful replacement wetlands and avai lable mitigation credits would make the evaluation of permit applications more focused on issues concerning the need for the permit and the ecological value of the impacted wetland if the permit is or is not granted . These important permitting issues would then be divorced from concerns about the possibility and likelihood of successful mitigation . Introduction Indeed, these advantages have been recognized by entrepreneurs and wetland regulators in many areas of the country, and two private commercial m1t1gation banks--the "Millhaven Plantation Bank" in Screven and Burke counties, Georgia , and the "Florida Wetlandsbank" in Pembroke Pines, Florida--have already obtained Federal permission to create and sell mitigation credits under the Section 404 regulatory program. And, across the nation the challenge of creating regulations conducive to private credit market systems is actively being discussed in a number of states and localities. There are localities and circumstances where credit markets cannot improve prospects for successful mitigation . Where suitable restoration sites or so urce s of water for wetland restoration projects are not availab le , for example, producing mitigation credits may be impossible. Where wetland development is not profitable enough for permit seekers to afford high-quality mitigation the demand for credits may be too small for the credit market alternative to succeed . However, prospects for successful mitigation credit markets are limited in most cases by the same geo-physical and economic conditions that limit opportunities for successfu l mitigation of any kind. In general the opportunities for mitigation credit markets to help further the no-net-loss goal exist wherever mitigation is viewed as an acceptable alternative to prohibiting all wetland development. C. Study Objectives and Approach This report describes the results of an analysis of the potential for using mitigation credit market systems to increase the succ ess of compensatory mitigation und er wetland regulatory programs. The specific objectives of the study were to : l. Describe the general operation of and economic forces and regulatory policies affecting private markets Ill wetland mitigation credits; 5 Introduction 2 . Explain the types of trading rules necessary to promote the economic viability of credit markets systems while limiting and allocating the risk of mitigation failure ; and 3. Investigate and recommend regulatory reforms which could enhance the ability of credit market systems to help the nation achieve the no-net-loss and net gain wetland goals. The study began with the development of an analytical framework to examine how regulatory policies might affect the economics of private credit markets. The model resulted in several working hypotheses relating to the ability of private credit markets to operate under alternative trading and regulatory rules. With these hypotheses in mind, questions were developed which served as the structure for interviews with a variety of stakeholders in wetland regulation across the country , including prospective private credit suppliers (the terms credit suppliers and commercial mitigation banks are treated as synonyms and used interchangeably throughout this report), mitigation consultants , and Federal , state, and local wetland regulators and resource agency officials. Interviews with prospective credit suppliers included entrepreneurs in various stages of developing commercial mitigation banks . Some of the prospective credit suppliers had already developed carefully considered bank proposal and were actively negotiating bank agreements with regulators, while others were just beginning the planning process. During the course of the study , the Millhaven Plantation bank and Florida Wetlandsbank secured Federal permits authorizing credit sales. The regulators and resource agency field staff interviewed for this study came from the specific areas in which the newly-permitted and prospective commercial banks are located and from states and localities which have recently incorporated or are considering incorporating rules for credit market systems within their wetland programs . 6 The perspectives and experiences of the interviewees were used to modify and confirm the working hypotheses, refine the analytical framework, and develop findings and recommendations on how trading and regulatory rules could be fashioned to promote the emergence and ecological success of private credit markets. A general discussion of the interview results is found in Appendix II . D. Plan of the Report Section Il briefly reviews the compensatory mitigation requirements of wetland regulations , the ability to evaluate wetlands as part of the compensatory mitigation requirements , and recent developments in mitigation policy and practice. This section also discusses the private credit market alternative in greater detail, and examines how market forces and various credit trading rules can affect the supply of and demand for mitigation credits. The trading rules include a set of bank requirements and conditions on trades which must be met before credits can be created and sold . Section ID examines how the trading rules governing private credit markets could be fashioned to promote the economic viability of credit market systems and manage the risks of mitigation project failure. The central conclusion is that the widespread emergence of private credit market systems hinges on allowing credits sales to occur before bank wetlands have reached functional maturity or self-maintenance. However , allowing such early credit sales without adequate safeguards would increase the risk of mitigation project failure borne by the public. Other trading rules which can be used to minimize and allocate the risks of mitigation failure are then described . Section IV discusses regulatory policy reforms which could enhance the benefits of credit trading systems. The primary recommendation is to reduce barriers to market entry by private mitigation supply firms. Also, greater flexibility in the Federal permit review process could advance private credit markets if mitigation sequencing rules were part of a comprehensive wetlands watershed planning process . Section V, the conclusions, identifies the key considerations that should be included in any regulation and guidance for the establishment and Introduction use of private credit markets. Appendix I discusses key conceptual issues relating to the valuation and trading of mitigation credits. Finally, Appendix II provides a summary review of the general perspectives on private credit markets uncovered in the study interviews with existing and prospective credit suppliers, wetland regulators , and resource agency field staff. The expectations and concerns of these parties regarding credit market systems are discussed here. 7 BLANK PAGE (Skip) 8 The principal Federal program regulating wetlands evolved pursuant to Section 404 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. Building on or expanding beyond the Section 404 program, many states also administer wetland protection programs for areas which do not fall under Federal regulatory jurisdiction. The content and recommendations of this report relating to mitigation credit market systems and regulatory reforms refer directly to the Section 404 program , but are equally applicable to state programs. In fact , several states are currently developing, and Florida and Maryland have already enacted, legislation which relates directly to the topic of this paper: the establishment and use of private credit market systems as part of wetland regulation . A. The Section 404 Program The Section 404 regulatory program requires permits for activities involving the discharge of dredge or fill material into "Waters of the United States", which includes most wetlands. The permitting process seeks to ensure that activities associated with discharges into wetlands proceed only if they are in the public interest and comply with certain environmental standards. The program is administered jointly by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (the "Corps") and the U.S . Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), with advice from the U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service . The Corps handles the day-to-day program administration, including reviewing and deciding upon standard "individual" permit applications. Among other responsibilities under the program, the EPA developed the environmental standards by which the Corps judges individual permit applications--the Section 404(b )(1) guidelines , and II. WETLAND REGULATION AND MITIGATION CREDIT MARKETS also shares enforcement responsibility with the Corps . The Corps also issues "general" permits authorizing classes of activities which are similar in nature and deemed, individually and cumulatively , to result in no more than minimal adverse environmental effects. General permits do not require detailed project-specific review by the Corps and can be issued on a nationwide, regionwide, or statewide basis . l. Mitigation Sequencing: The Section 404(b )( 1) guidelines set out the environmental criteria that must be satisfied before an individual permit can be granted. These so-called "mitigation sequencing" rules set out three requirements for permits granted under the regulatory program . The first requirement says that no discharge can be permitted if there is a practicable alternative to the proposed development that would have less adverse impact on the aquatic environment. For the determination of which discharges to avoid, the guidelines create a presumption that practicable alternatives are available for any project that is not "water-dependent." However, it is also the case that the alternative is usually expected to be one that is available to the permit applicant. The mitigation sequencing rules spell out two more criteria that must be met in succession once the Corps determines that the proposed project of a permit applicant cannot reasonably be expected to avoid a wetland area. The second step in sequencing states that discharges into wetlands can be permitted only when permit applicants take all "appropriate and practicable" steps to minimize unavoidable wetland impacts . Permit applicants must then comp ens ate for those wetland impacts remaining after all appropriate and practicable efforts have been made to avoid and minin1ize projects impacts. Compensation may be provided by restoring former wetlands, enhancing existing 9 Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Credit Markets wetlands, and the creation of wetlands from uplands . To simplify discussion, the term "restoration" is used throughout this report to describe all types of mitigation compensation althoug h it actually refers to a specific type of compensatory action.) 2. Compensatory Mitigation: In 1990 the Army and the EPA signed a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) clarifying, among other things , the procedures to be used in determining when compensation is required, and the types and levels of compensation necessary to comply with the Section 404(b )( 1) guidelines . It specifies that the compensation requirement can be met through efforts to restore, enhance, or create wetlands that replace the wetland functions lost as a result of permitted projects . The MOA specifies a preference for mitigation to be on or nearby the permitted areas and to be wetlands of the same kind--this is the so-called "on-site, in-kind" preference . The MOA also establishes a minimum one-to- one replacement ratio for wetlands functions to advance the no-net-loss goal. Critical to establishing a replacement requirement is the protocol for assessing the functions and ecological values Jost from the fill activity and the functional values that might be realized at the replacement wetlands site. Without such analysis, the determination of whether trading a permitted site will achieve no-net-loss can not be made. As the Section 404 program has grown, advancements in the sophistication of the protocols for functional wetlands assessment have followed. However, the state of the art in wetlands functional assessment is still in its experimental stage and the approaches to functional assessment vary greatly across permit decisions . One alternative has been to establish the assessment and make permit trades according to wetlands types (ex . emergent shrub , bottomland hardwood, etc.). The implication of 10 this approach is that an acre of the wetlands "type " can be traded for another acre of that same "type". Some adjustment for an expected difference in functional value may be made if the replacement wetland is newly constructed or restored and the filled wetlands was an ecologically mature site . In such ca ses the compensation may be to require more than one acre of the replacement wetlands for the mature site (King, Bohlen and Adler, 1993). In other cases, compensation requirements have been adjusted upwards to account for failure risk or to advance net gain, going beyond no-net loss. The special considerations which must be considered in establishing credit valuation and "trading ratios" are further explored later in this Section and in Appendix I. 3 . Regulatory Flexibility and Compensatory Mitigation: In the regulatory review of any individual permit application, regulators have the flexibility to scale the regulatory response according to the functional level of the wetland, the nature of the proposed discharge, and the potential environmental impact of the proposed discharge. It is likely that the degree of regulatory flexibility exercised in the permitting review process varies significantly by region , however, since the Section 404 program is administered by a number of Corps districts and EPA regional offices around the country. For example, less flexibility is probably exercised in areas of the country characterized by few remaining wetlands and strong development pressure . Regardless of how much regulatory flexibility exists in any given region, however, the mitigation sequencing rules require that permit applicants must first make all practicable efforts to avoid and minimize project impacts before compensatory mitigation is even considered in the granting of permits. Thus, for example, regulators would be required to deny a permit for a project that would produce significant wetland impacts if a less damaging practicable alternative for the project were available, even if the permit applicant offered to pro vide compensatory mitigation that clearly would more than offset the wetland impacts of the proposed discharge. B. Wetland Assessment Compensatory mitigation requirements are established by assuring that the wetland functions lost at the permitted site are replaced by the functions made available at the compensation site. The functions available at the compensation site are termed "mitigation credits". Mitigation credits are measures of the increase in wetland functional value achieved at the mitigation site, in excess of the functional value the site would have had without any wetland creation or restoration effort. Clearly, having protocols to establish the mitigation credits from the compensation wetland, as well as the functional value losses at the permitted site, are critical to determining whether compensation will achieve no-net-loss. Wetland functional assessment requires : ( 1) predicting the effects of human activity on the components and properties of the wetland being affected and on the wetland site being created or restored ; and (2) relating these predicted properties to positive and negative changes in the surrounding ecosystem. Assessment methods that offer a strong predictive capability have yet to be developed as part of a far-reaching research program (Zedler and Kentula, 1986 ; Bedford and Preston, 1988 ; The Conservation Foundation, 1988 ). Indeed, the development and application of ecological theory has not kept pace with the needs of society to make effective resource allocation decisions (National Research Council, 1986 ; Baskerville, 1986). Wetland assessment tools have been no exception. There are many unknowns and considerable uncert ainty surrounding even those key ecosystem--and wetland--properties that are thought to be well understoo d, at least in a theoretical sense. The Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Market Credits Conservation Foundation (1988) summarized the incomplete and uncertain information on wetlands: The information curre ntly available about wetlands is often incompl ete a nd un certain. An effective wetlands pro tection a nd management program demands better information about how wetland ecosystems operate, how they pe rform th e ir diverse functions , how these functions shou ld be m eas ured , how wet land va lu es and ecosyste m stab ility are affected by various types of threats , and a ho st of facto rs re lated to the characteri stics of the resourc es. Nonetheless, a range of practical wetland assessment approaches have been developed to organize and synthesize available information and expert judgement in order to do nece ssary wetland assessments (See Appendix I). These methods have been criticized by scientists (Preston and Bedford , 1988), but for the most part , regulators and practicing environmental planners are very satisfied with practic al utility of these methods (Kusler and Rexinger, 1986). Wetland scientists recognize the need for practical assessment tools . However, many feel that while the information included to support the ass~ssments methods may well be weak (but still the be st available), the methods do not incorporate that information into an assessment of a wetland's place within a surrounding landscape and ecosystem, especially as related to habitat (life support) functions. These critics would point out that there are some aspects of the relationships between wetland sites and surrounding landscapes (and characteristics such as wetland patch size, densit y, and connectivity) that can and should be made part of the assessment process (Stakhiv, 1991 ). In particular, the wetlands assessment protocol mu st recognize the cumulative ecological effects of a permitted wetland Joss to be sure that the mitigation wetland offers full compensation (Stakhiv, 1988 ; 1991). Cumulative effects can be taken into account by focusing on the landscape scale (Harris, 1988 ; Whigham et. al., 1988 ; 11 Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Credit Markets Brinson, 1988; Klopatek, 1988 ; and Lee and Gosselink, 1988). Some point out that a landscape-objective approach to wetlands evaluation might be preferred rather than an approach that amalgamates wetland values essentially focusing only on ecological properties (Stakhiv , 1991). Wetland assessments generally have focused narrowly at the site level on specific wetland functions , such as particular fish and wildlife habitat, or on an amalgamation of a limited suite of wetland functions . However, in other cases, mitigation analyses, and the resulting compensation requirements in the permit that was issued have been based on creative ways to assess wetland functions directly or indirectly , landscape considerations notwithstanding. If watershed goals focus on a suite of wetland functions , then credit valuation protocol can be built around an assessment method capable of evaluating such a range of functions (e .g ., the "Wetland Evaluation Technique"). If, on the other hand, watershed needs focus primarily on wildlife habitat, this might dictate the use of a narrowly- defined assessment method based on that wetland function (e .g., the "Habitat Evaluation Procedures"). Both approaches are useful for evaluating compensatory mitigation requirements involving like wetland types, and might also be tailored to evaluate trades of dissimilar wetlands when such out-of-kind compensatory mitigation would contribute to watershed goals. Alternatively, if watershed needs dictate in-kind compensatory mitigation, credit valuation might be based on a more simplified method for subjectively scoring acres of like wetland types. C. Mitigation Alternatives Al though the 1990 MOA emphasizes the use of on-site mitigation to compensate for unavoidable wetland impacts, it recognizes mitigation banking as an acceptable altemati ve 12 under specific criteria designed to ensure mitigation success . Interim national guidance for the establishment and use of wetland mitigation banks under the 404 program was issued jointly by the EPA and the Corps to their field offices on August 23 , 1993. The guidelines define mitigation banking as " ... the restoration , creation, enhancement, and , in exceptional circumstances, preservation of wetlands or other aquatic habitats expressly for the purpose of providing compensatory mitigation in advance of discharges into wetlands permitted under the Section 404 regulatory program." The interim guidelines , as well as earlier draft and final guidance documents produced by various EPA regions and Corps districts, stress that regulators should require the establishment of bank sites in advance (i .e., in place and functioning) of project impacts. Once a bank is certified for use by regulators, it provides mitigation credits that can be traded for units of permitted wetland loss. As wetland losses are permitted by the regulatory agency, debits are made to the bank, reducing its credit balance . The terms by which credits can be traded for units of permitted wetland loss--the trading or compensation ratio--is typically set by regulators to achieve no-net-loss in wetland function and acreage . Mitigation banking offers the opportunity to obtain compensation for the loss of wetland functions caused by multiple independent or linear development projects through a single , large-scale wetland mitigation project located elsewhere in the watershed . Banking has several advantages. • Banking provides large-scale restorations and long-term management that can more effectively maintain ecosystem integrity than isolated, on-site mitigation projects . • Banking, by providing pre-planned or advanced replacement wetlands , reduces intertemporal losses of wetland functions and increases the certainty that compensatory mitigation will be realized. • Banking reduces compensation costs by realizing economies-of-scale in the provision of compensatory mitigation. • Banking provides greater predictability to qualifying permit applicants by reducing the cost and del ays often associated with the permit review process. l . Single-User Mitigation Ban ks: The ability of mitigation banking to improve the economic efficiency and environmental effectiveness of wetland regulation has been constrained by it s limited use to date, however. A recent survey and analysis of miti gation banks conducted by IWR ( 1994 ), with the assistance of the Environmental Law Institute, found that of the 44 banks in operation as of Summer 1992, over 90 percent of these banks (40 of 44) were developed and used exclusively by a single public or private entity to provide for its own future mitigation needs. What has effectively been negotiated in this type of "single-user" bank is a reduction in permit review requirements for a single developer who has a sequence of hi ghly certain wetlands development activities. Such banks are limited to those large public and private developers which routinely undertake many independent projects, and can afford the substantial up-front investment in compensatory m1t1gation. For example, approximately 70 percent of the operating banks identified in the Institute for Water Resources study were established by government or quasi- government agencies to compensate for the wetland impacts of their own public infrastructure projects. 2 . P u blic Commer cial Ban ks and Fee-Based M itigation Systems: In an effort to extend the advantages of banking to a broader set of permit applicants, a few government and non-profit entities have subsidized the construction and operation of public "commercial" banks. These banks offer mitigation credits for sale to the general public , and the proceeds from sales are Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Market Credits used to recoup the costs of bank construction and management. Similarly, a number of states and localities have established public fee-based mitigation systems, sometimes referred to as "in-lieu fee systems" or "mitigation trusts", for permitted projects involving small wetland impacts in which on-site mitigation projects would be infeasible or impractical (IWR, 1994). Public fee-based systems charge permit fees in lieu of the direct provision of mitigation by permittees . Revenues from fees are accumulated in trust funds for the intended fi1ture provision of replacement wetlands by the government entity. While the broader establishment of these two public mitigation systems could extend the advantages of mitigation banking to a wider set of permit applicants, each is faced with potentially serious problems which must first be overcome. One major problem for establishing public commercial banks involves the s ubstantial up-front financing needs for bank construction and management. For example, the Oregon state legislature authorized the creation of state wetlands banks, but the state has not yet been able to provide the needed funds for bank capitalization. Fee-based mitigation systems may also face financing problems since there is no guarantee that dedicating collected fees to trust funds will protect the receipts from other uses . Some states have "raided" trust funds established for other purposes . For example, in Maryland a portion of the land title transfer tax was to be dedicated to the purchase of development rights for farmland. However, over time some of those funds have been allocated to other purposes. 3. M it igatio n Credit Markets: Private Commercial Banks: A parallel, but less active, interest of all levels of government involves a private market approach to mitigation credit trading. In 1991 , then President Bush indicated his interest in encouraging a "market-based" mitigation program in which private entrepreneurs, who have 13 Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Credit Markets no wetland development of their own to compensate for, would create mitigation credits for sale to permit applicants in need of compensatory mitigation under the Section 404 program. Unlike commercial banking by public entities, a private credit market system would tap the profit motive to encourage private entrepreneurs to create miti ga tion credits with private capital. If a number of suppliers emerge to sell credits to many possible buyers , a market for wetland functions would develop. Market competition could ensure that mitigation credits were provided at lea st cost, and provide incentives for the further d evelopment of wetlands restoration science and t echnology as restoration firms seek out more successful restoration techniques. Although the Bush Administration favored the idea of private markets in mitigation credits, little progress was made in developing the concept. Still, interest in the general theme of mitigation banking remains strong in the new administration and in Congress, and this interest may include private commercial banks . The Clinton Administration Wetland Plan released on August 24 , 1993 expresses support for the use of mitigation banking in the Federal regulatory program . The plan states that: "Congress should endorse the appropriate use of banking as a compensatory mitigation option under the Section 404 regulatory program, within environmentally sound limits . Congress should also ex plicitl y allow use of the State Revolving Fund by States to capitalize mitigation banks" (White House Office of Environmental Policy , 1993). It 1s unclear whether the Administration's recommendation for the use of Federal funds to capitalize state banks refers to the establishment of public commercial or single-user banks . If the former, this would suggest that the Administration supports the general concept of commercial banking, which could also include private sector bank ventures. 14 Further, two of the four most popular wetland reform bills introduced in Cong ress in 1993 supp ort the use of mitigation banking in the Federal regulatory program. In the Senate , S. 1114, Title VII provides for the development of Federal rules for the estab li shment, use , maintenance and oversight of public and private mitigation banks. One House bill--H .R. 1330-- would establish a mitigation banking program in every state to promote both public and private banks . Like the Administration Plan, these two bill s do not explicitly endorse private commerc ial banking, but leave open the possibility. Another wetlands reform bill--H.R. 3465--that would establish a banking program does not mention commercial banking. A fourth wetlands reform bill in the House--H.R . 350--does not mention mitigation banking . Certain states and loc alities have moved ahead of Federal law and policy by explicitly authorizing priv ate mitigation credit markets. In Placer County, California, for example , the local government has developed extensive draft guidelines to encourage the operation of commercial mitigation banks, including specifying the conditions under which credits could be created and sold. By providing these guidelines the county hop es to encourage private investment in wetland restoration. The credits created would be sold to de velopers needing state permits for wetland impacts which fall outside 404 jurisdiction, but which are regulated under California law . At the state level , the Maryland legislature in I 9 9 3 passed a mitigation banking law that expressly authorizes the establishment and use of private commercial banks in the state's regulatory program. The new law is intended to encourage the use of priv ate credit markets to further the no- net-loss and net gains goa ls of the 1989 Maryland Nontidal Wetlands Protection Act. The law directs the state regulatory agency to issue regulations relating to all facets of the establishment and use of private commercial banks . In Florida, the State Department of Environmental Regulation is drafting regulatory guidelines for private mitigation banking. As m Maryland, these guidelines are being issued m response to a legislati ve directive. Although Federal law has yet to specifically authorize the establishment and use of private commercial mitigation banks in the Section 404 program, two private commercial banks--the Millhaven Plantation Bank in Georgia and the Florida Wetlandsbank--each received in 1993 Department of Army permits to create and sell mitigation credits under the 404 program . And more than a dozen other private commercial banking ventures are currently being planned, and at least one appears to be nearing regulatory approval. (Th e Fina Laterre bank in Louisiana was actually the first private bank to obtain regulatory permission to offer credits for commercial sale to the general public . However, this bank was originally developed as a single-user bank, and s ub sequent credit sales from the bank were the re s ult of the owner making the best use of credits remaining after its own mitigation needs had already been met.) Interviews conducted with Federal and state regulators who were (are) involved in reviewing and approving the newly-permitted and emerging private commercial banks indicate that they were willing to forge ahead with negotiation of these ventures in the absence of explicit Federal policy and guidance because of lo cal needs for more readily available and ecologically successful alternatives to on-s ite mitigation, particularly for small wetland impacts. Regulators pointed specifically to the opportunity for using private banks to increase the chance of obtaining successful compensatory mitigation in cases involving small wetland impacts allowed under general permits . Although private commercial banking is now a real ity under the Section 404 program in two small areas of the country and will likely expand to other areas in the near future , the widespread emergence of private mitigation credit markets is Wetland R egulation and Mitigation Market Credits not assured. Wetland restorations created for credit sales requ ire large-scale investments by entrepreneurs, and such investments will be made only if there is an expectation that profits from sales will y ield a competitive return on investment. This profit potenti a l in turn depends on regulatory policies which dictate the demand for permits and influence the cost of producing mitigation credits. Th e very existence and structure of markets in wetland mitigation credits depend on regulatory policies. D. Meshing Development and Environmental Objectives The operation of private credit markets to assure mitigation success requires bargaining among three agents: credit suppliers, permit applicants, and reg ulators . Each has its own objectives and constraints , and each approaches mitigation credit trading with its own expectations and strategies. To a large extent the opportunities and constraint s faced by credit suppliers and permit applicants depend on regulatory goals and the trading rul es estab li shed by regulators to achieve them. (Other agents, such as environmental interest groups, may have their own agenda regarding mitigation trading which they try to advance by influencing regulators). The ability of mitigation credit markets to meet the objectives of all three groups will determine whether or not they can operate to provide compensatory mitigation . The objective of permit applicants is to maximize the rate of return on investments in wetland development projects . To the extent that permit applicants are required by regulators to provide mitigation, they will try to minimize the costs of this requirement so as to max1m1ze development returns . The objective of credit suppliers is to maximize the rate of return on investments in wetland restoration . They will try to minimize their costs so as to maximize their own return on investment. 15 Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Credit Markets If a pennit app licant buys credits from a supplier to meet a mitigation requirement , what the applicant is really purchasing is not mitigation , per se , but a development pennit. That is, the willingness of pennit applicants to pay for credits is established by the regulatory requirement for compensatory mitigation as a condition for rece1vmg pennits. Because of this, a nonna l m arket exc hange between a permit applicant and a credit supp lier cannot be expected to result in assured, long -term mitigation success. In the absence of any conditions impo sed by regulators to min imize the risk of mitigation failure, th ere is no economic inc entive in this exchange for pennit applicants to strive for self-maintaining wetlands as a mitigation product. In fact, since the potential profits of pennit ap plicants is inversely related to mitigation costs, there is an economic incentive to minimi ze mitigation costs and, therefore, mitigation quality . The poor success rate observed for on-site miti gation efforts reflects in large part the se poor incenti ves for successful wetland restorations (see: National Research Council, 1992). The exis tin g market for on-site mitigation illustrates that when regulators do not establish adequate design standards, enforce actual construction , or hold permit app licants (or mitigation suppliers) liable for mitigation project failure, permit applicants can and often will reduce restoration expenditures at the exp ense of long-term mitigation s uccess. The objective of regulators is to protect the wetland functions in a watershed . The 404 regulatory program has administratively adopted a policy goal of achieving no-net-loss in wetland function , to be followed by net gain, to meet this objective. These goals are the res ult of legal mandates which govern the administration of the regulatory program . Figure l illustrates the nec essary conditions for mitigation credit markets to operate and serve the objectives of permit applicants, credit 16 suppliers, and regul ators. The shaded , overlapping area represents a sit uat ion where the objectives of all gro up s are satisfied: credit suppliers and pennit applicants each earn at least some profit, and the no -net-loss goal of regulators is achieved . E. Dema nd and Supply for Credits: Basic Economic Factors This section examines the effect of regional economic factors on the potential for private miti gation credit markets. For purposes of illustration, it abstracts from the regulatory policy environment so th at the general economic forces affecting credit markets can be described . Entrepreneurs would supply mitigation credits in any given region if they could expect to earn a competitive return on investments in wetlands restoration . Assume that regulators have made it clear that they will not subsidize credit suppliers in any way, but will allow credits to be sold after mitigatio n sites achieve some clearly specified criteria. Assume further that credit s uppliers are confident that they can satisfy these criteria and can produce credits certified for sa le immediately after completing mitigation construction at the proj ect sites . Under these conditions, the present value cost of producing credits is the only factor that detennines the willingness of mitigation suppliers to sell credits at different prices . Given fully competitive markets, the position and slope of the supply curve for credits would be determined by the costs of producing credits, including interest charges on invested capital until the credits are so ld, and the risk costs from possible failure of mitigation sites before credits are certified for sale . Demand for mitigation credits in most geographic regions exists among land developers , highway departments, and other organizations that must provide mitigation in order to satisfy pennit conditions. These potential buyers of PRIVATE CREDIT SUPPLIERS Objective is to maximize the net economic return on wetlands restoration Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Market Credits PERMIT APPLICANTS Objective is to maximize the net return on wetlands development Objective is to obtain a no-net loss or net gain in watershed function Figure 1. Linked Objectives of Regulators, Permit Applicants, and Credit Suppliers mitigation cre dits will demand credits only if credit prices are less than the cost of on-site mitigation or self-initiated off-site mitigation and still offer a po sitive ra te of return from receiving permits . These eco nomic factors, across all permit applicants , establish the demand for mitigation credits at vari ou s prices--the position and slop e of the deman d curve for mitigation credits . The position and slop e of the suppl y and demand curves are determined by production costs a nd wetlands development pressure , respectively, in each geographic region . However, it is th e interaction of supply and demand within eac h region that establishes credit prices and the number of credits needing to be suppli ed . Since the eco nomic force s esta bli shin g the supply and demand for mitigation credits vary across geographic regions, there is no reason to expect that credit markets will emerge everywhere, or that the amount of traded credits wo uld be significant. To illu strate some potential regional di fferences, compare the prairie potholes of North D akota that can be restored relatively quickly and inexpensively, with the coastal emergent wetlands of Cape Co d, Massac hu setts that are time- consuming and expensive to restore. On the basis of these supply-relate d factors alone, the potential for mitigation credit markets appear to be greater in North Dakota than in Cape Cod. However , there is much greate r development pressure in 17 Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Credit Markets Cape Cod, and the tourism-based development pressure found there is profitable enough to justify much more spending on mitigation than the farm-related activities responsible for the draining of potholes in North Dakota . Based on demand-related factors alone , credit markets would appear to have more potential in Cape Cod. Figure 2 illu strates how the interaction of supply and demand under various circumstances might influence the potential for market-based mitigation trading . Four cases are represented indicating different s uppl y and demand relationships. Case A depicts a region where mitigation costs and the demand for mitigation credits are relatively low--the situation described above for North Dakota. Case B depicts a situation involving high mitigation costs and high demand for mitigation--the situation described above for Cape Cod salt marshes. Credit markets might emerge in either case since the supply and demand curves shown for both Cases A and B intersect. Of course, for entrepreneurs in case B , the financial risk of investing in mitigation for sale is high, making careful assessment of market condition and production cost extremely important. The need for detailed economic analysis of supply-and demand-side issues is less in Cases C and D . Case C depicts a situation where the cost of mitigation is relatively low and the demand for mitigation is relatively high. This may be the situation in some parts of Maryland and Virginia, for example, where filled and degraded Chesapeake Bay wetlands are abundant and relatively easy to restore , and demand for land by real estate developers who can afford high quality mitigation is relatively high. It appears that credit markets wo uld succeed und er the supply and demand conditions depicted in Case C. Case D illustrates the opposite situation where the cost of wetland restoration is relatively high and the demand for mitigation is so low that prospects for successful private credit markets appear poor. This situation might occur in rural parts of Louisiana , for example, where the 18 profitability of converting forested wetlands for commercial or residential development may be relatively low , and the cost of restoration is relatively high . These examples illustrate how fundamental economic forces determine the potential supply of and demand for mitigation credits. However, held constant in each of the illustrated cases is a regulatory framework and set of trading rules which were not discussed . The structure of these policies could overwhelm regiona l market forces by causing credit supply and/or demand to shift in ways that would create or destroy the potential for private credit markets. F. Understanding the Effects of Regulatory Policies on Private Credit Markets As noted earlier, the supply and demand conditions in markets for mitigation credits are exceptional because of two roles that must be played by government. First, credit markets could n ot exist in the absence of government regulations which create the demand for wetland development permits and make the granting of permits conditional on compensatory mitigation. Second , with regard to requirements for compensatory mitigation, permit applicants are price-conscious but not quality-conscious ; their only concern is whether mitigation satisfies permit conditions established by regulators. It is the regulator, not the buyer of mitigation, who must impose "quality control" on the market throu gh trading rules establishing how and when credits can be created and sold (King, 1992). Figure 3 illustrates the various ways in which regulatory policies influence the underlying forces of supply and demand in private credit markets. The left hand column identifies the factors underlying the supply of mitigation credits, and the right hand column identifies the factors underlying CASE A -Low-cost restoration -Low-value development pressure CASEC_ -Low-cost restoration supply demand Quantity -High-value development pressure Quantity CASEB_ -High-cost restoration Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Market Credits -High-value development pressure Quantity CASED_ -High-cost restoration -Low-Value development pressure supply Pd ----demand Quantity SUPPLY : The quantity of" credits supplied at any given price DEMAND : The quantity of" credits demanded at any given price Figure 2. Regional Economic Effects on the Potential for Mitigation Credit Markets the demand for credits . The suppl y of credit s reflects the costs of acq uiring (or leasing) and restoring former wetland areas to provide mitigation. The demand for credits is derived from the demand for permits and reflects the value of credits to permit applicants. The ce nt er column of Figure 3 identifies policy decisions that influence the underlying forces affecting either the suppl y of or demand for credits. Lines connect in g the policy col umn with the supply and demand columns indicate where regul atory poli cies have the most significant imp act. The poli cy column incl ud es government d ecisions regarding regulatory rul es and trading rul es. The regulatory rules include policy decisions regarding (i) entry into the credit supply business a nd (ii) watershed planning . The effects of regulatory poli cies on credit demand and supply will be exp lored in Section IV . Regulator concerns with credit trading ce nter around the risk of mitigation fail ure . To address these conce rns in the establi shment and use of 19 Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Credit Markets SUPPLY SITE ACQUISITION •Cost INVEST IN CREATIO N / RESTORATION ACTIVITY • Restoration costs • Long-term management costs • Ri sk of fai lure / charge for time to marketability • Ri sk of regulatory change Supply of mitigation credits 8 if REGULATION REGUlATORY RULES • Market Entry • Watershed Planning TRADING RULES • De,i&n and Coru;truction Standard' • Performance Standard, • Monitoring and Maintenance Standard' • Long-term management 'tandard' • Time to mark.dab ility • Co 't liability for failure THE WEILAND MITIGATION CREDIT MARKEf )<Supply Demand Quantity DEMAND DEVELOPMENT PRESS • Public works • Commercial/industria l • Residential DEMAND FOR WETLAND DEVELOPMENT PERMITS • Profitability of wetland and alternative development sites • Predictability of permit approval D emand for credits D emand for mitigation Internally provided mitigatio SUPPLY: The quantity of credits supplied at any given price DEMAND: The quantity of credits demanded at any given price REGULATION: The conditions established by regulators to create and link the market for credits with the market for permits Figure 3. Regulatory Policies Influence Wetland Mitigation Credit Markets 20 private commercial banks , regul ators can establish a set of interrelated trading rules to increa se the probability of mitigation success, and thus the certainty with which policy goals can be met throu gh cre dit market systems. Trading rules could include mitigation desi gn and performance standards, monitoring and maintenanc e requ irements, cost liability for project failure , and pro visions for long-term site ownership and m a nagement. Also, the trading rules must include conditions for when credits could be marketed . All these trading rules affect the cost of producing credits and thus credit prices, and trade- o ffs among them may be nece ssary to preserve the economic viability of credit market systems. In particular, prospecti ve credit s uppliers have a strong preference for selling credits at the time re storation sites are constructed or immediately Wetland Regulation and Mitigation Market Credits after completion . This would lower the costs and financi al risks to suppliers by eli minating the need to tie-up large amounts of money for extended time without any cash flow from credit sa les. If s uch early credit sales were allow ed, however, then trading rules which esta blish quality standards and cost li abi lity for failure would assume more importance. For examp le , if a prospective credit supplier had a restoration site and mitigation expertise viewe d by the regulator as likely to produce a successful mitigation project, then the regulator might allow credit sales if certain design and construction stan dards were met. However , s ince at that point the bank mitigatio n would likel y be an immature wetland and not yet even a self- su staining system, the regulator might also want to impose on the credit supplier performance standards, monitoring and maintenance requirements, and cost liability for proj ect failure. 21 BLANK PAGE (Skip) 22 III. TRADING RULE REFORMS TO PROMOTE CREDIT MARKET SYSTEMS AND LIMIT AND ALLOCATE MITIGATION FAILURE RISK Concerns about mitigation center around the potential for restoration fail ure. Refer to Figure 4 , which shows the "restoration s uc cess" time-path for a mitigation site to appreciate the nature of thi s concern. The vertical axis of Figure 4 is an index of the funct ional val ue per acre at a mitigation site , and the horizontal axis measures time, where t=n is the time at which the mitigation site is constructed , t =n + I is the time at which the site reaches a self- m a int aining state , and t=n +2 is th e time at whi ch the site ac h ieves functiona l maturity. When the site reaches a self-maintaining state, full function and value have not (nece ssarily) been ac hi eved, but the site has a high degree of persistence and resilience to natural and anthropogenic disturbances and does not require extensive management inputs to stay viable . The so lid line shows the t im e-path representing how the level of --- n n+l ecological fun ctioning of a restoration site increases wi th time. The dashed lines represent hyp othetical con fidence bands aro und the tim e- p ath . T he confidence bands narrow over time as restoration "success " becomes more certain. In terms of the regulator's concerns , the confidence b a n ds show th at the probability of restoration fai lure declines with time (King, Bohlen, and A dl er, 1993). Concern s over project failure , and who is li a bl e for s uch failure, are heightened by the di sa ppoint ing hi storical r ecord of on-site mitigation efforts. However, many who are skeptical about wetland restoration in the mitigation context fail to distinguish between fai lures of the science and fai lures due t o poor app lic ation of the science . The available evidence suggests that much of the ------------ n+2 Time n = time at which restoration is constructed n+ 1 = time at which the site reaches self-maintenance n+2 =time at which the site reaches functional maturity Figure 4. Change In Confidence In Restoration Success Over Time 23 Trading Rule R eforms to Promote Credit Market Systems observed failure of on-site mitigation is the res ult of vague restoration goals, inadequate expertise in performing restorations, failure to fully implement and enforce mitigation requirements, and an absence of site monitoring and management over time . This s uggests that the institutional problems which lead to mitigation failure and net loss of wetlands should be ad dres sed in setting up a market-based mitigation trading system, but should not be confused with the technical challenges of wetland restoration . The challenge confronting regulatory agencies is to set rules for credit trading systems that limit the risk of mitigation failure and allo ca te liability for failure in a mann er that is not cost-prohibitive, while at the same time ensure achievement of regulatory goals to maintain and improve wetland functions . The types of trading rule reforms that could promote this result are the subject of this section. A . Timing of Credit Marketability The recently issued interim national guidelines for m1t1gat ion banking (U.S . Environmental Protection Agency and Department of the Army , 1993) state that replacement wetlands should generally be in place and functioning before credits can be used to offset permitted wetland impacts. This timing requirement stems from regulator concerns about mitigation project failure. At the same time, h owever, the timing issue is critical for the economic viability of private commercial b anks. If regu lators prohibit credit sa les until fully functioning or self-maintaining wetlands have been achieved at mitigation sites, then credit suppliers would bear two costs: (1) costs of waiting for the maturation of replacement wetlands (i.e., the opportunity costs of invested capital); and (2) costs of self-insuring against the risk of unforeseen natural events that might disrupt the attainment of the criteria used to measure success (assuming they are stated by the regulators). Credit prices would need to ri se to cover all these costs . 24 The interviews conducted for this study with existing and prospective credit supp liers stron gly suggest that in most cases the cost of waiting and bearing strict liability for mitigation failure would be too high for them to earn a competitive return on investment. Given the potentially long waiting times to gain approva l for credit sales, the interviewees were concerned that the price per credit they would have to charge to ensure a competitive, risk adjusted rate of return would be above that which permit applicants would be willing to pay. This would especially be true if on-site mitigation does not face the same requirements. The interim banking guidelines seem to acknowledge thi s problem by allowing that: "... it may be appropriate to allow incremental distributio n of credits correspo nding to the appropriate stage of successful establi shment of wetland functi ons . Moreover, va ri a bl e mitigation ratios (credit ac reage to impacted wet land ac reage) may be used in such circumstances to re flect the wetlan d function s attained at a ba nk s ite at a particular point in time . For example, higher ratios would be required whe n a bank is not yet folly functio nal at the time cred it s are to be withdrawn" (U .S. Environmental Protection Agency and Department of the Army, 1993). These provisions provide one possible way in which reg ul ators' concerns for mitigation project failure can be reconciled with the financial constraints of pri vate credit suppliers. This was essentially the approach used for the Millhaven Plantation bank. The bank's permit states that when mitigation activity is completed for a particular mitigation parcel according to Federally-approved specific ations and a "preliminary determination of hydrology" is made, the bank wi ll then be a llo wed to sell one-half of the total mitigation credits generated by that parcel. The bank must then show within three years that the parcel satisfies wetland delineation criteria relati ng to hydrology, soi ls , and vegetation before the remammg credits generated by the parcel can be sold. Moreover, the Corps project manager for the bank has sole discretion to establish trading ratios for any particular use of the bank. In an interv iew, the project manager noted that the Corps will adj ust trading ratios to account for the maturity of replacement wetlands relative to impacted wetlands . However, even this added flexibility in the timing of credit sa les may be insufficient to promote the widespread establishment of private commercial banks. Our interviews suggest that some entrepreneurs would not enter the credit supply business unless they were permitted to produce credits concurrently with the wetland impacts for which the credits will serve as compensatory miti gation. In fact, the Federal permit for the other operating private commercial bank, Florida Wetlandsbank, allows for such concurrent mitigation . In this case the banker successfully argued to regulators that the financial viability of the venture depended on using revenues from credit sales to finance the construction of repl ace ment wetlands for those credits . The bank does intend to provide some advanced mitigation once sufficient revenues from credit sales based on concurrent mitigations have been accumulated . Regulatory and resource agency field staff consented to the bank provi si on for concurrent miti gation based on their recognition of the substantial costs of restoring the site up-front, and the need for the bank to proceed with site restoration in a phased manner. In an interview , the Corps project manager for the Florida Wetlandsbank also indicated that the Corps was confident that the banker's favorable restoration site, plan, and miti gat ion expertise would result in a more successful, and more easily monitored and maintained, mitigation than what is typically provided by on-site mitigation projects . These two permitted priv ate commercial banks illustrate that if marke t-bas ed trading systems are to opera te, there may need to be Trading Rule Reforms to Promote Credit Market Systems opportunities for credit suppliers to sell credits b efore fu ll fimctiona l maturity or self- maintenance is reached at wetland restoratio n sites, and in some cases, perhaps even at the time in which mitigation is undertaken . However, s uch early credit sales will be a llow ed only if re g ul ators' concern s about the ri sk of project failure and who be ars the consequences of failure are accounted for . Trading rule s to limit and allocate the risk of mitigation failure in the credit market context are explored below. B. Performance, Monitoring and Maintenance, and Long-Term Management Standards The consequence of mitigation failure could be that compensation for granting a permit will not be realized, or that the public will have to make an expenditure to repair the failed mitigation . In advance of the repl acement wetland being in place and fully function al, the failure risk cost for a mitigation site is the product of: • The probability that the restoration site will not achieve some long-term functional maturity; and • The cost to repair or replace the re storation site when the compensation is not ac hieved or does not persist over time . Mitigation failure can result from a number of factors , including poor project s iting and design, inadequate or incomplete application of restoration science, and limitations in the current state of that science. In addition, mitigation failures can result from unpredictable natural events which take restoration projects off the path to maturity before the point of self-maintenance is reached. The risk of mitigation failure due to unpredictable natural events require s additional 25 Trading Rule Reforms to Promote Credit Market Systems explanation. Natural disasters such as droughts and hurricanes may compromise the long-term viability of mitigation sites. Although disaster risks might be le ssened somewhat through careful s itin g and restoration design, mitigation failures resulting from such extreme events are largely uncontrollable . However, there is another class of natural events that regulators often feel can and should be controlled for by those establishing mitigation sites: the unexpected invasion of sites by unwanted plant or animal species. But if, for example, a mitigation site is colonized by beavers or muskrats which cause a somewhat different than planned plant community to evolve, this should not necessarily be considered m1t1gation failure . Willard and Klarquist (1992) explain the basis for this view: "Often we attempt to recreate or preserve a specific wetland ty pe with a particular species mix and precise geogra phy . Now we accept that wetlands are livin g sys tems and some types do change . The y grow , change spec ie s and become other systems . Yet we prescribe mitigation plan s which dictate constancy and attempt to construct a particular kind of wetland in place forever. Recent work in fresh wate r systems (e.g ., potholes, western riparian streams , mid-western floodplains and elsewhere) have awakened new int erest and understand in g of systems that must change to persist." This observation raises two important points for private commercial banks. First, succe ss criteria (i .e., performance stan dard s) must be established to judge whether a mitigation bank is failing or has failed, and these should be defined in advance of credit sales . Second, performance standards sho uld provide some leeway to account for less-than-extreme natural events that may cause a mitigation bank to evolve along a somewhat different path than originally planned. The success criteria written into the permits for the Millhaven Plantation bank and the Florida Wetlandsbank appear to provide some flexibility 26 by focusing on biological diversity at mitigation sites. Millhaven Plantation is required to maintain 3 0 0 trees per acre, and at least 25 percent of the "dominant" trees must be hardwoods . Further, no single species of planted or naturally occurring tree can at any time represent more than 30 percent of the dominant trees . Similarly , the success criteria for Florida Wetlandsbank require 85 percent survivorship of planted vegetation at 2 and 5 years after a mitigation parcel is certified for credit sales. Florida Wetlandsbank's permit goes on to say that "No more than 10 percent of the planted area may support exotic or undesirable plant species; it is noted that I 0 percent of exotic or undesirable plant species may contribute to habitat diversity ." Each of these two permitted commercial banks are held to their respective performance standards during the course of 5-year monitoring and maintenance periods established for each mitigation parcel certified for credit sales. Each bank is required to perform site monitoring and submit monitoring data to regulators as well as remedial plans for any discovered deficiency. In the case of Millhaven Plantation, if a deficiency is uncovered, a new 5-year monitoring and maintenance period begins at the completion of remedial work undertaken to correct the deficiency . Both banks are released from further responsibility for any mitigation parcel in which the 5-year monitoring and maintenance period is s ucc essfully completed . As the permits for these two banks implicitly acknowledge, it wo uld be unreasonable to hold credit supp liers to performance standards for more than some limited period of time. But at the successful conclusion of performance periods, concern may still remain about possible project failure arising from a lack of long-term wetland status at the mitigation site. Here the concern is that after all credits are sold and performance periods are s ucc essfully completed , there will be no interest in keeping the mitigation site as a wetland area . This concern has two elements. One is that the site will require long-term management to keep it a wetland . The second is that the owners of the site will seek to put it to a non-wetlands use at some future date. The contract provision s that authorize mitigation suppliers to create and se ll credits could address these potential problems . For example, contracts might require that re stora tion projects be designed to be self-maintaining and/or there may be a requirement for some form of endowment with the earnings dedicated to perpetual maintenance. The endowment might be put in the hands of a management agency or a conservation group which would have similar maintenance responsibilities as a Parks Department. The ability to sell the site for a non-wetlands use might be restricted by requiring either a plan to transfer the site to public ownership and/or a conservation management entity, through permanent easements and deed restrictions . The permits for Millhaven Plantation and Florida Wetlandsbank include such provisions . The land on which the Millhaven Planation bank is lo cated is owned by a private, second party who leases the site to the banker. The permit for the bank is conditional on a perpetual conservation easement with the Corps which requires the landowner to observe certain management standards designed to ensure the future status of the mitigation site as a wetland area. The Florida Wetlandsbank also leases the bank site from a separate landowner--the city of Pembroke Pines. Mitigation areas for this bank are protected by conservation easements into perpetuity , which also require the city to perform perpetual site management. Payments of $1,000 per mitigation acre were provided by the banker, based on estimates of maintenance cost jointly agreed to by the banker and regulator. The above discussion suggests that regulators must clarify the "contract" conditions for credit suppliers in Memoranda of Agreement (MOA) and/or bank permits . Th e agreements recorded in these co ntracts must specify (in addition to mitigation siting, design and construction plans): Trading Rule Reforms to Promote Credit Market Systems p erformance standards that define th e co nditions under which mitigation projects would be judged successful; monitoring and maintenance r eq uirements to un cover and correct deficiencies, and; provisions for long-term site management. Moreover, performan ce standards s hould provide so me leeway to account for less -than-extreme natural events which might cause mitigatio n sites to evo lv e along so mewhat different paths than originally planned. C. Liability Rules for Private Credit Markets The risk of mitigation project failure is not a concern to permit applicants (i.e., credit demanders) once permits are granted, unless they are held liable for any costs necessary to repair a failed restoration . And while many credit suppliers would likely take pains to ensure that their restoration sites are successful in order to further their future prospects in the credit supply business, failure risk may be a concern to more opportunistic credit suppliers only if restoration projects fail before all credits are sold or if they bear cost liability for mitigation project failure. This suggests that to ensure quality control at mitigation bank s, regulators should impose cost liability on credit supp liers for failure to meet site de sign, performance , and management standards. However, cost liability should not be imposed for mitigation failures resulting from natural disasters or other extreme events which prevent the attainment of performance standards for completed mitigation parcels . If credit suppliers were held liable for mitigation failures resulting from extreme events beyond their control , this could raise the risk costs borne by credit supp li ers to the point where credit market systems could not operate . In order to ensure mitigation quality control while maintaining the eco nomic viability of private credit markets, regu lators should allocate to credit suppliers (or demanders) those failure risk costs resu ltin g from non -performan ce with contract requirem en ts regarding th e design , 27 Trading Rule Reforms to Promote Credit Market Systems performance, and management of m1tzgation projects, but not those failure cos ts resulting from extreme events which prevent credit suppliers from fulfilling contract obligations. This issue was explicitly recognized and accounted for in the case of the Florida Wetlandsbank. The bank's permit specifies that if "acts of war, acts of God, rebellion, strikes or natural disaster, including hurricane, flood or fire" prevent the attainment of bank performance standards, the banker will not be held liable for such mitigation failure. However, the permit also says that if such extreme events "do not preclude the bank from performing permit conditions, the bank shall not be relieved of its obligations under the permit". While the permit for Millhaven Plantation has no similar provision, in an interview the Corps project manager indicated that the bank would not be required to replant vegetation destroyed in any completed mitigation phase as a result of extreme natural events such as hurricane damage, but the bank would be required to fix any damaged water control structure. It is also crucial for the economic viability (and environmental effectiveness) of credit market systems that the amount of cost liability for failure risk imposed in any particular case reflect realistic failure probabilities and repair costs for that case . If this is done the private entrepreneurs' profit motive will encourage them to use current restoration technologies carefully and encourage them to develop new technologies in order to reduce the cost liability burden. Factors to be considered in estimating failure probability and repair cost for any particular mitigation site should include : 1) The stringency of requirements established by regulators for restoration design , performance, and management at the mitigation site. The more stringent the requirements, the lower the failure probability and the less the cost to repair a failed site. 28 2) The qualifications of, and regulators' historical experience with, the restoration contractor at the mitigation site. The more skilled and experienced the restoration contractor, the lower the failure probability. 3) The point in the time-path from initial re s toration construction to functional maturity at which the credit sale is made . As time passes the certainty of successful restoration increases and costs to repair a failure falls. 4) The location of the restoration site within the larger watershed system. Placement of the site in the watershed where hydrology and potential biological integration is greatest suggests a higher probability of success. 5) The particular wetland type being restored at the mitigation site and hi storical restoration success rates associated with this wetland type. These factors can be used to judge likely restoration success. 6) The security of the Jong term status of the site as a wetland. Easements and trust funds for perpetual management increase probability of success over the long-term. There are at least four options available to regulators for allocating cost liability for controllable failure risks . Such liability mechanisms, which are described below, should be included in the contracts that regulators write for each bank. The regulator should choose among the options (not use all of them) in recognition of the expected failure probability at the site. Further, as is illustrated below in the examples provided by the two permitted private commercial banks , liability mechanisms must be adjusted to the estimated failure probabilities and expected repair costs for each situation. 1. Higher Trading Ratio: The regulatory agency may adjust the trading ratio for credits from the bank parcel to address controllable failure risks (there are other reasons for adjusting ratios--see Appendix I). The trading ratio required for any particular sale to a permit applicant would be based on some computation of the likelihood of re storation project fai lure . For example, assuming that the regulator seeks to achieve a no-net-loss goal , a trading ratio for failure risk from purchases at one site might be 2 : 1. All other factors equal , that ratio would imply a failure probability of 50% at the credit supplier's site, and also that such failure would be complete (i .e., no functional value increase would occur at the site). Different trading ratios may be required for different mitigation sites or parcels to account for different failure probabilities across sites or parcel s. In a competitive market, private credit suppliers would want regulators to impose lower trading ratios for any particular trade , and to this end would seek to reduce fai lure risk . And the low er the trading ratio required, other factors equal, the low er the compensation cost that would be paid by the permit app licant. This option imposes risk costs on credit purchasers (i.e., permit applicants), but once th e trading ratio is set and the credits are purchased , the pub lic sector would be accepting the risk cost of restoration failure . Higher trading ratios would raise the costs to permit applicants of securing permits, and may dampen the demand for permits , and then for credits, to the point where the credit market would not operate . Therefore, the ratios mu st be base d on realistic failure probabilities and repair costs (see the six items li ste d above). 2. Performance Bonds: The regulatory agency may alternativel y require credit suppliers to po st performance bonds as a way to provide financial assurance. With this option, the bond requirement would be se t by and paid to the regulatory agency, and the payment would be reimbursed with interest if at some future date the regulator certifies that the credit s upplier's mitigation was successful. Trading Rule Reforms to Promote Credit Market Systems Partial refunds would be available for partial re storation succe ss at the credit supplier's si te. In fact , there may be some way to justify partial refunds each year. Early credit sales from the site would be permitted , and if the site fails the money in the bond would be used by the regulator to repair the mitigation project. The amount of the bond for any particular case would reflect the regulator's best estimate of the cost to repair the mitigation site if it fails ; failure probability is not the concern of the regulator in setting the bond amount. This approach places the failure risk cost on the credit supplier who would be expected to pass this cost on to customers. The total risk cost borne by a credit supplier is the sum of two costs . One cost is the difference between the market interest rate the supplier pays on the bond amount and the amount of interest (if any) paid by the regulator holding the bond. If the two interest rates are equal this cost is zero. The second cost is measured by the credit supplier's expected prob ability of non-reimbursem ent times the amount of the bond . For the credit sup plier, the expected probability of non-reimbursement should be po ss ible to assess if the contract with the regulatory agency clearly specifies the conditions under which site failure would be established. Well-specified criteria for defining mitigation failure wo uld in crease the credit supp li er's ability to estimate and take actions to minimize failure probabili ty. Performance bonding is the financial assurance approach used in both the Millhaven Plantatio n bank and the Florida Wetlandsbank . The permit for Millhaven Plantation requires that the bank post a $5 ,000 bond with the Corps for each acre of mitig at ion for which a "preliminary determination of hydrology" is made. Once the Corps makes a final determination that these acres have been restored to their "pre-drained hydrology", the bond amounts will then be reduced to $1,000, and a 5-year monitoring and maintenance period begins . The bond balance will 29 Trading Rule Reforms to Promote Credit Market Systems then be released to the banker upon completion of the monitoring and maintenance period only if no negative reports regarding the restored acres are filed by the relevant state and Federal agencies. In the event of a negative report , the 5-year monitoring period begins anew and the $1,000 bond is retained until satisfactory completion . The determination of the required bond dollar amounts in each phase were based on the regulator's estimate of repair cost for the level of failure expected to occur in each phase. The regulator expected that in the initial phase any mitigation failure would be less that 100 percent, and would be much lower in the second phase. The permit for the Florida Wetlandsbank requires that the bank post performance bonds in the amount of $8 ,800 per acre with the city of Pembroke Pines (the land owner) prior to the commencement of mitigation work . All but $968 of the bond amounts will then be released in phases as certain milestones are reached concerning the eradication of exotic vegetation , site construction and planting , and the commencement of a 5-year monitoring and maintenance period. The balance of the bond amount in each phase reflects the regulator's best estimate of the costs to repair a failure occurring in each phase. This estimate was developed , in part, from cost information provided by the banker. 3. Collateral Banks: The performance bond approach collects funds and only after the mitigation has not met performance standards and the banker has failed to satisfactorily correct the deficiency would the regulator move to repair the m1t1gation. Another option available to address contro liable failure risk would be to establish a functioning wetland restoration site to serve as a "coll ateral bank" to secure advanced compensation. The collateral bank could be developed at public expense or might be operated under a contractual agreement between the regulator and a private party . Credit suppliers, as they sold credits from their own mitigation site, would be expected to "lease" equivalent credits 30 from the publicly run or certified collateral bank. The amount of collateral credits that credit suppliers would be required to lease from the collateral bank would be based on the regulatory agenc y's estimate of the costs to create the collateral bank credits and the failure probability for the credit supplier's mitigation site . The cost to lease mitigation credits from the collateral bank shou Id reflect credit production costs and interest charges on invested capital , including allowance for a competitive return on that capital , and would be set as follows. The cost for a credit at the collateral bank would be established and weighted by the regulator's estimate of the probability of failure at the credit supplier's mitigation site . Thus, if production costs at the collateral bank were $30,000 per credit (including interest charges) and failure probability at the private site was expected to be 50 % (and this failure would be complete), a lease price of $15 ,000 would be charged . As with the performance bond option, once the credit supplier's mitigation site was certified as s uc cessful, the lease payment would be refunded with interest. In this case, the amount refunded would be reduced by the allowance for a necessary profit if the collateral bank is privately developed. As with the performance bond , the credit supplier should be ab le to assess and reduce failure probability if the criteria for success are well defined by the regulatory agency . If the credit supplier's mitigation site were judged a failure , on the other hand , then all the s uppli er's deposits to the collateral bank would be kept and the collateral bank would have less credits to lease. As failures occurred , the forfeited deposits would be used to create new collateral bank mitigations. In the case of failure, the required mitigation compensation would come from the collateral bank and not from the repair of the failed bank site . 4 . Insurance: The regulatory agency may alternatively choose to charge an insurance premium against controllable failure risks as a condition for selling or purchasing credits. This would be a one-time and non-refundable payment made by the credit supplier or permit applicant for each credit traded . The premiums would be collected by the regulator, placed in a fund , and used to repair or even fully replace fa il ed m1 t1gation sites . This option shifts failure risk costs to credit suppliers and/or permit applicants , but once the insurance payments are made, the public sector would be accepting the responsibility to assure that wetland restorations or mitigation repairs were made to offset project failures. The premium would be based on an actuarial analysis of the probability and cost of project failure. Such an insurance premium is required by the draft guidelines developed by Placer County in California for the establishment and use of commercial mitigation banks to provide compensation for wetland impacts which fall outside Federal regulatory jurisdiction. The guide lines stipul ate that credit purchasers must pay an additional 25 percent of credit costs to the county which shall be held in a reserve account in order to provide for any remedial measures that might be necessary at commercial banks, or to provide replacement wetlands at some other location. The 25 percent figure represents the county's assumptions regarding expected failure probability and repair cost taking into consideration the other bank requirements imposed by the guidelines . However, the 25 percent figure must be considered somewhat arbitrary since it is necessarily divorced from the specific circumstances of failure probability and repair cost at particular bank parcels . The above discussion illustrates the potential range of mechanisms that could be included in the contracts for private commercial banks (or wetland development permits) to allocate the risk costs of mitigation failure resulting from non-performance with contract requirements . Thes e liability rules should be viewed as substitutes for each other, Trading Rule Reforms to Promote Credit Market Systems and th eir use could vary by s ituation . Moreover, the l e vel of risk cost establish ed for any partic ular bank must reflec t realisti c failure probability and repair cost for that bank. The need to a djust liability rules according to the previously listed six factors which bear on failure probability and repair cost underscores the argument that the potential of private credit market systems requires balancing the set of trading rules imposed on any particular bank. In the extreme, the specific trading rules and bank circumstances underlying the six factors, particularly that for the timing of credit marketability, might be so stringent and favorable for mitigation success that financial assurance becomes unnecessary . This trade-off is ill ustrated by the permit for the Florida Wetlandsbank as well as the draft MOA for a proposed private commercial bank in Virginia that appears to be nearing final regulatory approval. While the Florida Wetlandsbank is permitted to sell credits concurrently with the construction of mitigation parcels for those credits, the bank also intends to provide some advanced mitigation (i.e., in place and functioning). The bank's pem1it specifies that the performance bond requirement for concurrent mitigations is waived in the case of mitigation parcels constructed in advance of credit sales. Similarly, the draft MOA for the proposed Neabsco Wetland Bank in Prince William Country, Virginia says that "credits cannot be withdrawn prior to the Corps determination that the mitigation bank is a functional wetland", but includes no provision for performance bonding or other financial assurance. D. Credit Valuation and Trading The establishment of private commercial credit market systems requires that the type and level of wetlands functions and ecological values at the bank site be specified . Only if s uch a 31 Trading Rule Reforms to Promote Credit Market Systems functional assessment is conducted will it be possible to judge how many credits have been created for sale. Bank specific rules should be established for determining how credits will be defined and their level assessed. The credit valuation protocol developed for any bank should relate to the needs and goals of the applicable watershed (as determined by resource managers and regulators), and the specific ways in which the bank intends to contribute to their achievement. Since watershed goals vary from area to area, and the specific ecological goals of banks vary from bank to bank, one would expect each commercial bank to have its own, somewhat unique , credit valuation protocol tailored to the wetland functional values of interest in the watershed . The fact that functional assessments vary greatly across banks can be attributed to variable bank conditions and goals as well as the lack of a standard , comprehensive wetland assessment technique that is applicable to all wetland types and landscape settings . (See Section IIB for an extended discussion of wetland assessment and Appendix I for detailed discussion of credit valuation and trading). There are several broad approaches available for evaluating and expressing the eco logical worth of bank replacement wetlands, and functional losses at permitted sites , in measures of mitigation credits. These include: (I) "simple indices" which rely on observable characteristics such as wetland type and area; (2) "habitat indices" which use measurements of specific wet land functions relating to wildlife support; and (3) "comprehensive functional indices" which define and base credit evaluations on quantitative assessments of a range of possible wetland functions. There are as many different ways in which such methods could be used as there are different banks. The Federally-permitted private commercial banks provide two concrete examples . 32 The permit for the Millhaven Plantation bank g ives the Corps project manager authority to make final determinations of the number of credits generated by restored bank parcel s after the relevant resource agencies have had the opportunity to review and comment on the quality of the restoration work, and to assess the relative functional values of permitted wetland impacts. In making this determination, "the Corps may use any availab le technology, resource or information it determines appropriate in performing these assessments and making wetlands functions and values determinations." Further, the Corps project manager has sole authority to determine appropriate trading ratios on a trade-by-trade basis . In an interview , the Corps project manager indicated that "best professional judgement" will be used to make this determination. This will consider factors such as the particular types of impacted and replacement wetlands (o ut -of-kind trades are acceptable), their relative maturity, and the nature and level of their ecological functioning. The permit for the Florida Wetlandsbank (FWB) specifies a much different approach for credit definition and evaluation . Credits are defined in terms of "integrated functional units" based on a functional assessment methodology developed by the Corps and EPA for everglade- type wetlands. This method evaluates wetland pollution assimilation, habitat , and flood control functions and translates these assessments into a single "integrated functional index" (IFI) value . The permit specifies that the FWB mitigations will result in a specific IFI value which "takes into consideration that the proposed bank represents and will function as a stand-a lon e system which will provide water quality, habitat and flood flow attenuation functions". To determine the amount of replacement wetlands required for any particular trade , an IFI value will be assessed for the impacted wetland and then translated into "FWB eq uival ent mitigation acreage". In addition, bank-specific rules are needed to define the types and sizes of wetland development impacts for which the bank's credits can be used to provide compensatory mitigation, as well as the Trading Rule Reforms to Promote Credit Market Systems bank's geographic service area. These rules, as well as rules for valuing credits and determining trading ratios, must be written into the co ntract requirements for each bank. 33 BLANK PAGE (Skip) 34 IV. REGULATORY RULE REFORMS TO FACILITATE PRIVATE CREDIT MARKETS In Section II a distinction was drawn between trading rules and regulatory rules . Both types of rules influence permit applicants' demand (willingness to pay) for credits and private commercial bankers' supply of credits (willingness to make investments in credit creation). Section III, which provided a discussion of trading rules , emphasized how rules for the timing of credit sales , standards of perforn1ance, and li ability for project failure will influence entrepreneurs' willingness to invest in supplying credits . However, for the full potential of the credit market to be realized, the demand for credits must be assured, and the prices received for credits must be adequate to earn a competitive return on the investment in credit creation. Regulatory rule reforms to promote these results sho uld 1) facilitate market entry opportunities for private commercial banks and 2) integrate mitigation banking into watershed planning and management. A. Facilitating Market Entry The benefits of private credit market systems would be enhanced if a sufficient number of private credit supply firms enter the market, making the supply of credits adequate for mitigation needs. Also, if there were many firms , competitive pressures would encourage firms to continuously seek ways to lower costs . Of course, the general market conditions must be favorable for market entry to occur (See Section II). For example, private banking would not be profitable in locations where there is little demand for wetland development permits . However, even where there is a strong potential demand for credits, regulatory rules must encourage market entry by avoiding actions which inadvertently reduce the demand for credits . There are four areas for attention . 1. Consistency in Mitigation Requirements: The demand for credits supplied by private commercial banks will be reduced if the regulatory process does not hold on-site mitigations to comparable standards as those applied to bank mitigation projects . For example, in the past some single-user banks have not been allowed to withdraw credits until the bank mitigations were in place and certified as fully successful. Only then would wetland development permits be issued in return for compensatory mitigation from the bank. This requirement discourages banking of any type and encourages permit applicants to propose on- si te mitigation, which is not held to advance mitigation requirements. At the same time , the implementation and enforcement of quality standards for on-site mitigation has been lax . Indeed , it has been the failure of on-site mitigation which has promoted interest in banking. If this inconsistency in requirements for on- site mitigation and banking continues, then some permit applicants will be encouraged to choose the apparently "cheaper" alt ernative of on-site mitigation (despite the likelihood of failure) and seriously dampen the demand for private bank credits . Consequently, there needs to be across- the-board regulatory reform to assure that quality control standards are the same whether the mitigation is on-site or through a bank. In almost every interview conducted for this study the private bankers said that the possibility they will be held to hi gher standards than those who mitigate on-site was their greatest concern about financial success. The entrepreneurs behind the Millhaven bank suggested that this was a primary concern about their potential for financial success. 2. Competition from Public Banks: The emergence of private credit markets may come 35 Regulatory Rule Reforms to Facilitate Private Credit Markets slowly, although interviews conducted for this study have revealed significant entrepreneurial interest and activity . In the interim, regulators may develop a banking system that brings public commercial banks into the supply side of a mitigation credit market. There are a number of potential barriers to bringing the public sector into the mitigation supply business however. One major problem noted earlier involves the Jack of public funds for financing the construction of public commercial banks. This problem may also plague fee-based mitigation systems that collect fees in advance of the provision of mitigation, since there is no guarantee that dedicated fee revenues will actually be used for this purpose . Still, there are dozens of operating and proposed public commercial banks and fee-based mitigation systems. Under a public credit supply system, the regulatory agency is responsible for producing wetland mitigation credits and recovers production costs through the sale of credits. However, unless public banks set credit prices (or in-lieu fees) at levels that recover all mitigation costs, including interest charges on invested capital and failure risk costs , they will have a competitive price advantage over private commercial banks. (Procedures for estimating public commercial bank costs are the subject of a forthcoming report .) If the price- setting process for public banks does not reflect all bank costs, then public banks will not only directly subsidize the mitigation of permit applicants , but also will introduce "below-cost" competition for private banks . This would cause the same problem for private banks as that produced by competition from lax regulatory standards for on- site mitigation. This does not mean that public banks should set prices as high as private banks in all cases, however . Due to particular circumstances, a public bank may realize some scale economies or lower failure risk costs . If this were the case then such efficiencies would justify a lower public price than private price. 36 Also, many of the interviewees for this study questioned whether public ent1t1es could adequately assess the financial risks of public bank ventures. The Bracut marsh public commercial bank developed by the California Coastal Conservancy illustrates this problem . Although operational, the bank has failed to be self-supporting, and the Conservancy forecasts that when all bank credits have been sold at proscribed credit prices the bank will have recovered only 54 % of total costs (see : Environmental Law Institute, 1993). 3. Regul ation of P r ivate C r edit Prices: Compensatory mitigation requirements (and other mitigation sequencing rules) put a "mitigation price" on receiving a wetland development permit. In the same manner, private markets in mitigation credits would put prices on permits . Once the trading ratio was set for a particular trade, the permit applicant would seek credits on the open market. The price per credit in that market, times the number of credits required to satisfy mitigation requirements , would establish the price for the permit. Consider the following hypothetical situation . A private credit supplier can produce each credit for $5,000. At the same time, a permit applicant who stands to make a profit by developing a particular wetland site is willing and able to pay as much as $50,000 for the compensatory mitigation that will satisfy the permit conditions. During the regulatory review process the regulator considers failure risk and determines that the permit will be granted if the applicant provides three units of mitigation (i.e ., credits) for the one unit of wetland function lost due to the development project (or 3: 1 trading ratio). Knowing this ratio the permit applicant begins a negotiation with the credit supplier. One possible outcome is that the permit applicant will only pay the credit supplier a competitive return price of $5,000 per credit , incurring a total cost of$15,000 for the permit. A $3 5 ,000 development surplus would then remain with the permit applicant. Another possibility is that the supplier is the only one in the area certified by the regulator, and is able to extract the full $50,000 of the permit applicant's willingness to pay . In this case the $35 ,000 development surplus has been transferred from the permit applicant to the credit supplier. In either case the secured replacement in wetland function is unaffected--the ratio is 3: l. There is a third possibility. Suppose that before setting the trading ratio the regulator knew the permit applicant's willingness to pay ($50,000) and the credit supplier's minimum price for selling each credit ($5,000). In this case the trading ratio could be set at 10:1 and a deal between the applicant and credit supplier might still be made. In this case, the $35 ,000 of development surplus would be transferred to the wetland resource or, more generally, to the public . One perspective on these different distributional outcomes might be that the permit applicant has a property right to the site and its value. If the public is satisfied with the 3 : 1 compensation level, and if the credit supplier earns a return s ufficient to keep resources in the mitigation supply business, then the $35,000 should stay with the applicant. Such a view might call for price controls of some sort on the market if there is little price competition among suppliers. In fact, during the interviews some regulators at the field level expressed the concern that private entrepreneurs might make "too large" a profit from selling wetlands credits; that is, prices would be "too high ." While they did not advocate price controls, they instead saw this as a reason to discourage private markets in mitigation credits. These people seemed to favor public banks in part for this reason. However, this viewpoint was not held uniformly by all regulators. Another perspective is that the only reason for the 3 : 1 trading ratio is that the public did not realize how much the permit applicant was willing to pay for the permit. If this willingness to pay Regulatory Rule Reforms to Facilitate Private Credit Markets were known by the regulator, then the net gain goal could be advanced by insisting on as much as a 10: 1 trading ratio. Interestingly , during the interviews some regulators described how the determination of "acceptable" compensation for a permit often was partly established by the regulator's assessment of the applicant's willingness and ability to pay for compensation . However, offices of Federal and state agencies indicated that the regulator's job was only to secure acceptable mitigation compensation (i.e., secure replacement of expected lo st wetland functions) for granting the permit, and that the financial capability of the applicant should not be a consideration. It may appear that one way to stimulate market entry would be for the regulator to seek a very high (e.g., 10 :1) trading ratio, presumably to stimulate credit demand. However, the nature of the feedback links between the markets for permits and credits complicates reaching such a straight- forward conclusion. The trading ratio and the trading rules which affect credit price together determine the price of permits. Thus , higher trading ratios would increase the "mitigation price" for a permit, blunting permit demand and then credit demand. The net effect of these countervailing forces on private banks' credit demand as trading ratios are increased would depend on general market conditions which influence the demand for permits to develop wetlands . The distribution of returns which best serves the interests of advancing the private credit market is to avoid any interference in the establishment of the price of credits and to set trading rules according to environmental criteria. If there were excess profits in private banking , that would act as a short-term and powerful incentive for others to enter the credit supply business. Expanded competition in that business might be necessary if an adequate number of credits are to be supplied through private banks in the long term . To stimulate competition the regulator should simply 37 Regulatory Rule Reforms to Facilitate Private Credit Markets set trading rules and trading ratios which satisfy environmental concerns for project failure, and then let the applicant and supplier bargain over credit prices . The regulators should also allow permit applicants to choose the suppliers they wish to deal with. In the example above, some return above the credit supplier's $5,000 competitive return might be extracted from permit applicants. 4. Market Area Definition: Using ecological arguments , regulators feel that mitigation bank sites shou ld be as close as possible to the permitted wetland. As a result, for the few private banks currently allowed to sell credits, regulators expressed the need to closely define the geographic area within which credits could be sold. But, an ecological basis for determining the trading area need not be determined in advance of the establishment of the bank. Instead, the trading area might be determined when evaluating each permit a pplication. While in some cases there may be an ecological basis for limiting the geographic area for credit sales, generally narrowing the market area will shift (lower) the demand for credits for any single bank and restrict the possibility that numerous banks will be able to compete to serve any one area . Other geographic factors which can shift credit demand are the criteria for wetland delineation and for program jurisdiction. Guidelines on these matters define the size of the areas subject to regulation and can affect the demand for permits and then credits . The greater the geographical extent of areas falling within the wetlands regulatory net, the greater the extent of wetland development subject to mitigation requirements . Then , as the scope of mitigation needs expands, the demand for credits at any given price would be expected to increase. While the policy decisions which could expand or contract the geographical area subject to regulation should not be based on creating market opportumt1es for private commercial banking, nonetheless it should be 38 recognized that such decisions would affect credit demand. B . Water sh ed P la n ni n g a n d Man agement The potential for private commercial banking could be advanced if wetland regulation were incorporated into watershed planning . Such planning shou ld integrate regulatory and non- regulatory wetland rehabilitation and protection pro grams toward the goal of whole watershed restoration . Indeed, an emphasis on watershed planning is now a major theme in water resources management. The attention to watershed planning as a contributor to wetlands management reflects a recognition that many functional values of a wetland area, in a given location, are established by its contribution to a larger watershed system . Considering this reality , it is acknowledged that those wetlands which remain today are often residuals from the development process as much as they are an ideal configuration for the watershed system. Therefore, the mix of wetland areas and types which exist in a watershed today may not be the mix that best serves watershed restoration goals, especially in the face of anticipated development pressures. And , of course, many wetland areas which remain today are functionally degraded. Identification of these conditions in the design of programs to manage wetlands is one purpose of watershed planning. The regulators and resource agency officials interviewed for this study generally support the integration of the Section 404 regulatory program into watershed planning. Moreover, this theme is incorporated by the Administration Wetland Plan , which states: "Where state, tribal , regional , or lo ca l governments h ave approved watershed pl a ns that address wetlands, EPA and the Corps will give high priority to assist ing with the development of categorization of wetland resou rces for the purpose of Section 404" (White House Office of Environmental Policy, 1993 ). Similar attention to watershed planning is being stressed in several different bills which have been offered in Congress for the reauthorization of the Clean Water Act. If the watershed approach were widely adopted for wetland regulation, it would be a departure from the current tendency to separate the regulatory program from broader resource management programs . There are two contributions of watershed planning to the viability of private commercial banking. First, watershed planning could reduce the prospect of restoration project failure . If the plan identifies the long term presence of conditions which surround and affect a private mitigation bank site , then the placement and design of such sites would be improved . Such boundary conditions are often critical to the long term success of wetland restorations . If private banks were sited according to watershed plans, then bankers might be required to bear lower cost liability for project failure. Second, the existence of watershed plans would pave the way for adding flexibility in the regulatory program through the development of the wetland categorization systems . In particular, the mitigation sequencing rules at the level of the individual permit might be relaxed for certain wetland types in certain locations . In general, one category of wetland would be those of exceptionally high ecological value to the watershed, with functions that are costly or difficult to replicate . Avoidance is the best management strategy for these areas and only the most obvious water-dependent and high-value development would be even considered for a permit. Such wetlands would be identified in watershed plans . Another category of wetlands would be wetland sites which currently provide modest functional value to the watershed, or which currently produce high ecological values that would be compromised even if a permit for filling is denied. These are wetlands where cost- effective restoration of functions is possible and Regulatory Rule Reforms to Facilitate Private Credit Markets where development values might be high enough to secure the financial resources needed to maintain wetland functions through compensatory mitigation. A greater level of flexibility in applying the avoidance and impact minimization requirements than is currently allowed under the mitigation sequencing rules might be warranted here in consideration of the particular circumstances at the site . The areas where this would be the case would also be designated in watershed plans. In this manner, bank entrepreneurs would be better able to relate their assessment of development demand to the wetlands in their areas, and to judge the regional demand for mitigation credits . Also , from the perspective of private credit suppliers, the current mitigation sequencing rules, which seek to direct development away from all wetlands and which emphasize securing on-site and in -kind mitigation for unavoidable wetland losses resulting from those wetland developments that do occur, will limit the number of permits issued and low er the demand for permits and credits . Conversely, if watershed planning processes make off-site and out-of-kind mitigation more possible for certain wetland categories , this would encourage private commercial banking as a means to meet regulatory goals. 1. Accomplishing Watershed Planning for Wetlands Categorization: Watershed planning for wetlands categorization might be accomplished in the Special Area Management Planning Process (SAMP), in the Advance Identification Program under Section 404 (ADID), or as a part of a separate watershed planning authority under state or regional authority . (A forthcoming study will provide a detailed examination of the opportunities for and challenges of different watershed planning approaches to the potential of mitigation banking.) ADIDs are planning efforts where EPA , in conjunction with the Corps of Engineers and after consulting with the state , may in advance of permit 39 Regulatory Rule Reforms to Facilitate Private Credit Markets applications identify wetlands as generally suitable or unsuitable for discharge of dredged and fill material. ADIDs are authorized in section 404(b)(I) of the Clean Water Act, and are often funded through EPA grants. EPA selects ADID sites based on the perceived need for advance identification; that is , where EPA feels there is likely to be significant development pressure in areas that contain ecologically valuable wetlands. As of March, 1993, there were 71 ADIDs across the Nation, 35 completed and 36 ongoing (Environmental Law Institute, 1993). The size , scope, and degree of local involvement with these ADIDs vary. While ADID areas sometimes correspond to watershed boundaries, this is not necessarily the case . ADIDs can be initiated by EPA, but they can also be requested by state or local entities in order to facilitate local planning efforts . ADIDs are often components of other plans , such as in the case in West Eugene (OR) and Mill Creek (WA). While EPA emphasizes that ADIDs are strictly advisory , the Corps seems interested in using the ADID process to facilitate its permitting process, when allowable . For instance, following an ADID in Lake Co., Illinois, the Corps retracted some nationwide permits that had allowed certain activities in some of the wetlands that the ADID identified as functionally valuable . ADIDs are not undertaken to become watershed plans . Rather, they merely assess the functional value of wetlands prior to permit applications. An ADID assessment of a site does not predetermine what decision will be made if a permit application is filed, but does give some indication of where fill activities are likely to be allowed . In that sense , ADIDs are thought to be useful to developers as they provide advance warning about where permits are more or less likely to be given . It is also likely that ADIDs are useful to regulators, as they could expedite the review of individual permits by providing regulators with a database of wetland sites and functions. ADIDs are also thought to be useful in preventing inadvertent unauthorized filling of 40 wetlands, by making landowners more aware of wetlands on their property. Advance identification of wetlands could also contribute to private mitigation banking , helping bankers assess the likely demand for credits and identify appropriate mitigation sites . However, in some cases ADID projects have experienced problems. The advanced identification process itself sometimes proves difficult due to scientific uncertainty or the sheer geographic area of some ADID sites. Moreover, different interests sometimes voice opposition to a given ADID. Although advanced categorizations are not binding , in some instances landowners believe that advanced identification of sites unsuitable for fill reduces the value of their property . On the other hand, environmentalists and some regulators occasionally oppose advanced identification of wetland sites as suitable for development because they feel the designation encourages development and reduces protection of these wetlands . SAMPs, established under the 1980 amendments to the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA), are "comprehensive plans providing for natural resource protection and reasonable coastal-dependent economic growth ." Like ADIDs, SAMPs may or may not correspond to watershed boundaries. However, SAMPs are more comprehensive than ADIDs, and emphasize multi-agency and public participation . Also , unlike ADIDs, approved SAMPs have formal legal status and may serve as the basis for permitting decisions. Although SAMPs apply only to the coastal zone, the Corps has applied the SAMP procedure in inland areas . The Corps feels it has the authority to do this based on section 404 of the Clean Water Act, which gives it authority to grant general permits for certain activities . In general, the Corps participates in the development of SAMPs when there is : 1) significant development pressure in environmentally sensitive areas; 2) local involvement ; 3) a participating local agency ; and 4) an agreement of all parties on the outcome of the plan. It appears that this fourth point has proven the most difficult to obtain ; often there is disagreement among agencies and among property owners, commerci al interests , and environmental groups. SAMPs are potentially useful to mitigation banking in ways similar to ADIDs. SAMP plans could categorize wetlands . However, in the SAMP case, once accepted, categorizations would be Regulatory Rule Reforms to Facilitate P rivate Credit Markets binding. This would add certainty to any mitigation banking element of plans (if one is included) if a wetland category specifies that mitigation can be met through banking . For example , the West Eugene Wetlands Plan , described by the Corps as a "SAMP", is expected to establish wetland categories which specify those areas which will receive permits if they purchase credits from a (public) mitigation bank. 41 BLANK PAGE (Skip) 42 V. CO NCLUSIONS: REGULAT ORY RULES T O FACILITATE PRIVATE COMMERCIAL BANKING The message of this report is that private mitigation credit markets could help the Federal wetland regulatory program achieve no-net-loss of wetlands by increasing the opportunity to obtain successful compensatory mitigation for permitted wetland losses . Private credit markets could promote this result in two ways. First, credit markets would provide the means to secure mitigation for the many small wetland impacts that would otherwise go unmitigated. Second, the use of private credit market systems as an alternative to on-site mitigation in certain cases could enable regulators to circumvent the several sources of failure associated with the on-site mitigation option . This private market alternative is the next step beyond the recent intense interest in traditional, "single-user" mitigation banking arrangements. Private credit markets , if carefully structured, can offer a competitive return on investment for credit suppliers and an expedited permit review process for qualifying wetland developers. Most importantly, credit trading systems that insure against the risk of mitigation failure would benefit the public by advancing achievement of the no-net- loss and net gain wetland goals. All the various stakeholders m wetland regulation seem to agree that compensatory mitigation is not working well in practice and that the time is ripe for improvement. Practical evidence of the desire for change is provided by the two newly-permitted and the dozen or so emergmg private commercial banks across the country . At the policy level , some states and localities have already passed legislation authorizing private credit markets and are currently struggling with developing regulations for their establishment and use . While Federal government policy has not motivated these developments , recent proposals for policy reform in both the executive and legislative branches support the general concept of mitigation banking. At this point, the widespread emergence of private credit markets depends to a large extent on policy guidance which clarifies what is expected of entrepreneurs regarding the establishment and use of private commercial m1t1gation banks . Clarification of the types of bank conditions and trading rules expected under the regulatory program would eliminate much of the uncertainty currently facing prospective credit suppliers. Meanwhile, changes to the regulatory rules might also be part of an effort to facilitate private banking . The Corps and EPA jointly issued interim guidance in August 1993 to help guide field staff in the negotiation of mitigation banks . The final guidelines will need to focus attention on the general needs of commercial mitigation banks , which pose somewhat different challenges than single-user banking arrangements. National guidance should give individual regions the flexibility to produce regional guidelines specific to their own watershed needs, which in tum would increase the certainty for prospective credit suppliers in those areas. Of course, regulators in the field must provide information to prospective credit suppliers on the general process and steps required for the regulatory approval of private commercial mitigation banks and credit sales . Specific factors that must be addressed if the establishment of conditions favorable to private comm ercial banks is an objective of regulatory policy are summarized below . • Timing of Credit Marketability --Regulators may need to relax the preference for "advanced" mitigation in order to overcome the financial constraints of bankers. A 43 Conclusions decision to relax this requirement should be considered when the bank site and mitigation plan and expertise are likely to produce a successful mitigation project and when there are rules established to limit failure risk and allocate cost liability for failure . • P erfo rmance Standards Performance standards shoul d be required in order to determine when a bank mitigation parcel is failing or has failed . However, these standards should provide some leeway to account for less-than-extreme natural events whic h may cause a bank mitigation parcel to evolve along a somewhat different path than originally planned . • Monitoring and Maintenance --Bankers should be required to perform site monitoring and repair any detected deficiencies regarding site construction and performance . However, the monitoring and maintenance period should be limited to a reasonable time frame. • Long-term Management --Regulators should require mechanisms to ensure that bank sites retain their wetland status into perpetuity , and receive active long-term management if necessary . • Cost Liability Rules (Financial Assurance) -- Concern for project failure may require the use of mechanisms to ensure that bankers face cost liability for non-performance with contract requirements. However, bankers s hould not be held responsible for extreme events which prevent them from fulfilling contract requirements . Further, the level of cost liability imposed on a bank should be based on realistic estimates of failure probability and the public sector's expected repair cost for that bank, which would be a function of bank circumstances and the stringency of other trading rules imposed. • Credit Valuation --The determination of how credits are defined and evaluated for the 44 purpose of determining trading ratios should be based on case-and area-s pecific factors . Any number of approaches might be employed. • Consistency of Mitigation Requirements -- The wetland policy and programs of the regulatory agency should ha ve similar quality control standards for all mitigation projects , whether done on-site or off-site through mitigation banks. • Pricing of Private ly Supplied Cr edits --The price of credits sold by private commercial banks should be established through agreements between credit suppliers and permit applicants. It is the respons ibility of the regulator to set the trading ratio so that the enviro nmental goals of the agency are advanced with a high degree of certainty. • Pricing of Publicly Supplied Credits --Public commercial banks or in -lie u fee systems are al temative ways to offer compensation. These public options should be required to charge prices equal to the full cost of creating mitigation credits. Careful auditing and accounting procedures should be required of publicly financed commercial banks and in- lieu fee systems. • Trading Area --The types and sizes of wetland development projects that may use banks, and the geographic range of bank service area, should be determined acco rding to area-specific factors for each fill permit. • Watershed Planning for Bank Siting and Design --Regulators should use watershed plans to ensure that the siting of banks and bank design and construction plans contribute to local watershe d goals. • Watershed Planning to Achieve Wetlands Categorization --The categorization of wetlands to establish their functional significance m a watershed should be advanced through watershed planning. Once accomplished , this would enable the regulatory program to relax the mitigation Conclusions sequencing requirements for those wetlands which have been characterized in watershed plans as suitabl e for mitigation trading. 45 BLANK PAGE (Skip) 46 BIBLIOGRAPHY Albrecht, V., May 1992 . "The Wetlands Debate ." Urban Land . 20-23 pp . Baskerville , G., 19 86 . "Some Scientific Issues in Cumulative Environmental Impact Assessment." In: Cum ulative Environmental Effects : A Binomial Perspective . CEARC Workshop Proceedings . Minister of Supply and Services, Canada. 9-1 4 pp . Bedford , B.L. and E.M . Preston, 1988. "Developing the Scientific Basis for Assessing Cumulative Effects of Wetland Loss and Degradation on Landscape Functions: Status, Perspectives, and Prospects." Environmental Management. 12(5) 751-771. Brinson, M., 1988 . "Strategies for Assessing the Cumulative Effects of Wetland Alteration on Water Quality." Environmental Management. 2(5) 655-662. Conservation Foundation, 1988 . Protecting Americas Wetlands: An Action Agenda. Final Report of the National Wetlands Policy Forum. Washington D .C. 69 pp . Environmental Law Institut e, 1993 . Wetland Mitigation Banking. Washi ngton D .C. 159 pp. Erwin, K ., 1991. An Evaluation of Wetland Mitigation Within the South Florida Water Management District. Volume 1. Kevin L. Erwin Consulting Ecologist, Inc., Fort Meyers, Florida. 124 pp . Harris, L., 1988. "The Nature of Cumulative Impacts on Biotic Di versity of Wetland Vertebrates." Environmental Management. 12(5 ) 675-694. Interagency Committee on Wetlands Restoration and Creation, August 1992 . A National Program For Wetlands Restoration and Creation. A Report to Policy Coordinating Group Interagency Task Force on Wetlands . 47 pp. King , Dennis M., April 1992 . "The Economics of Ecological Restoration." Chapter 19 in Natural Resource Damage Assessment: Law and Economics , edited by John Duffield and Kevin Ward, New York: John Wiley Publishers . 47 pp. King , Dennis M ., Curtis C . Bohlen , and Kenneth J. Adler, July 1993 . "Watershed Management and Wetland Mitigation : A Framework for Determining Compensation Ratios ." A report prepared for the EPA, Office of Poli cy, Planning, and Evaluation, Washington, D .C. Klopatek, J., 1988 . "Some Thoughts on Using a Landscape Framework to Address Cum ul ative Impacts on Wetland Food Chain Support." Environmental Management. 12(5) 703-714. Kusler, J., June 24-27, 1992 . "Mitigation Banks and Joint Projects : A National Perspective on Issues ." Effective Mitigation : Mitigation Banks and Joint Projects in the Context of Wetland Management Plans . Berne, New York: The Association of State Wetland Managers. 57 pp. 47 Bibliography Kusler, J. and M.E. Kentula, Eds, 1990. Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. Washington, D .C.: Island Press. 594 pp. Kusler, J. and P. Reixinger, Eds ., 1986. National Wetland Assessment Symposium. Proceedings. ASWM Tech. Rpt. 1. Chester, Vermont: Association of the State Wetlands Managers . 331 pp . Lee, L. and J. Gosselink, 1988 . "Cumulative Impacts on Wetlands: Linking Scientific Assessments and Regulatory Alternatives ." Environmental Management. 12(5) 591-602 . National Research Council, 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press. 552 pp . National Wetlands Policy Forum, 1988. Protecting America's Wetlands: An Action Agenda . Washington D.C.: The Conservation Foundation. 69 pp . Redmond , A., 1990 . Report on Mitigation in Florida State Permitting Efforts. Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Tallahassee, Florida . Stakhiv, E., 1988. "An Evaluation Paradigm for Cumulative Impact Analysis." Environmental Management. 12(5) 725-748. Stak:hiv, E ., February 1991. Cumulative Impact Analysis Framework for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regulatory Program. U.S . Army Engineers Institute for Water Resources , Draft Report, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, 282 pp. U.S . Army Engineers Institute for Water Resources, 1994 . First Phase Summary, National Wetland Mitigation Banking Study. IWR Report 94-WMB-4, prepared by Robert Brumbaugh and Richard Reppert, Institute for Water Resources, Alexandria, Virginia . U .S . Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of the Army, 1990 . "Memorandum of Agreement between the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Army Concerning the Determination of Mitigation Under the Clean Water Act Section 404(b)(l) Guidelines ." U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D .C. U.S . Environmental Protection Agency and U .S. Department of the Army, August 23, 1993. "Memorandum to the Field : Establishment and Use of Wetland Mitigation Banks in the Clean Water Act Section 404 Regulatory Program". Washington, D .C. 4 pp. U.S . General Accounting Office, November 1991. Wetlands Overview: Federal and State Policies, Legislation, and Programs . RCED-92-79FS . Gaithersburg, Maryland: Superintendent of Documents. 93 pp. Whigham, D., C. Chitterling and B. Palmer, 1988. "Impacts of Freshwater Wetlands on Water Quality: A Landscape Perspective." Environmental Management. 12(5) 663-674. White House Office of Environmental Policy , August 24, 1993 . Protecting America's Wetlands : A Fair, Flexible, and Effective Approach. Washington, D .C. 24 pp. 48 Bibliography Willard , Daniel E . and John E . Klarquist, 1992 . "Ecological Basis for Watershed Approaches to Wetlands and Mitigation Banks or Cooperative Ventures ." Schoo l of Public Affairs , Indiana University , Bloomington, Indiana . Zedler, J.B. and M.E . Kentula, 1986. Wetlands Research Plan . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental Research Laboratory , Corvallis , Oregon . EPA/600/3-86/009 , 118 pp . 49 BLANK PAGE (Skip) 50 Central to compensatory mitigation of wetland impacts is (I) the need to evaluate and express the ecological worth of replacement wetlands in measures of mitigation credits , and (2) the need to determine the number of credits needed for any bank trade to provide the required compensatory mitigation for permitted wetland impacts. The first need can be termed "credit valuation" (or crediting), while the second can be termed "cred it trading" (or debiting). This Appendix discusses key conceptual issues relating to these needs. A. Credit Valuation I. Valuation Principles: A mitigation credit is a unit of measure of the increase in wetland functional value achieved at a wetland mitigation site (over the functiona l value of the site if no mitigation were to be effected). Mitigation credits serve as the unit of exchange for provision of compensatory mitigation. Protocols to assess the functional value of replacement wetlands, as well as to estab li sh functional lo sses at the permitted site, are critical for determining the acceptabi li ty of any bank trade. Without s uch protocols the appropriate credit requirements for a bank trade cannot be evaluated, and therefore, it is not possible to be confident that regulatory goals will be achieved through credit trading . As the Section 404 program has grown, advances in the sophistic ation of methods for wetland s functional assessment have followed . However, the state-of-the-art in wetlands assessment is still experimental and somewhat controversial. Wetland functions are difficult to measure individually or cumulatively in any qualitative or quantitative way , and there is no one generalized or "correct" assessment methodology that is app lic able to all wetland types and landscape settings . Nevertheless, the existing APPENDIX I. CREDIT VALUATION AND TRADING mitigation experience shows that creative ways can and have been found to directly or indirectly assess wetland functions in order to perform the credit valuation task . Theory and practice suggest that the primary guiding principle for the development of credit valuation protocols for any bank relates to the needs and goals of the applicable watershed (as determined by resource managers and regulators), and the spec ifi c wa ys in which the bank intends to contribute to their achievement. Since watershed goals vary from area to area , and the specific ecological objectives of banks vary from bank to bank, one would expect each commercial bank to h ave its own, somewhat unique , credit valuation protocol tailored to the wetland functional val ues of interest in the watershed . Anot her consideration for the development of credit valuation protocols relates to the difficulty and expense of app lying direct functional assessment methods . In general, the more technically sophisticated and comprehensive the functional assessment method used , the greater will be the cost and complexity of the credit va lu ation task. Since the precision of wetland functional assessments do not necessarily move in lock-step with the degree of methodological sophistication , banks often choose to focus on in- kind trading of like wetland types to facilitate the u se of more simplified assessment approaches for credit valuation . The need for banks to establish cost-effective credit valuation protocols based on watershed-and bank-specific mitigation goals means that there are as many ways in which credit valuation can proceed as there are different banks . And since credit val uation protocols will vary across banks , so will the units in which credits are defined (i.e ., the credit "currency"). Thi s is because credit 51 Appendix I Credit Valuation and Trading currency 1s largely determined by the functional assessment method used for credit valuation. Depenrung on the assessment method used , bank credits might be defined in terms of, for example, some integrated index of wetland functioning , habitat units, or acres of like wetland types . While credit valuation protocols and credit currency will vary from bank to bank, there must be consistency in the way credits are evaluated and defined across all uses of any particular mitigation bank. That is, the applic ation of a credit valuation protocol to evaluate and express the ecological value of bank replacement wetlands in mitigation credits will determine the baseline methodology and currency in which all trades from that bank should be evaluated. 2 . Valuation Techniques: Credit determination methodology can be categorized into four approaches : inventory, subjective sconng, production/diversity indices and measures, and function eval u ation methods. Inventory only gives area as an output, the other three approaches can give area or function units such as habitat units (HU's). (a) Inventory. An inventory approach produces measures of wetland area (acres, hectares) with no indication of wetland quality. However, if more than one wetland type exists and the inventory is stratified by type, special attention can be given to preferred or sensitive types . Alternatively, a bank can be stratified by quality using another approach s uch as subjective scoring, then area calculated for each stratum. Classification of wetlands into type can include combinations of types to focus on and characterize a wetland complex, e .g ., wooded wetland with associated scrub shrub area. (b) Subjective (Expert) Scoring. This involves use of experts and best professional judgment. If best professional judgment is used , one or more individuals familiar with the wetlands in the bank and in the impacted wetland determine the relative quality of each area. This approach is very 52 subjective, but attributes of documentation and consistency can be improved by adding some structure to the scoring. ( c) Production/diversity indices and measures. Data collected on wetland function production can be used to determine credits and debits when interpreted with area . For instance, a measure of species richness or volume of flood water retention can give relative ratings on wetlands or can be standardized for direct comparison. One approach with potential for use in wetlands is the Index of Biotic Integrity which was developed for aquatic systems; it has components of species richness and system health. (d) Function evaluation. Function evaluation methods examine the ability of the wetland to produce selected functions . Unfortunately, the technology to support regulatory requirements to consider multiple functions in wetland decisions is incomplete, but two methods are generally used. The Wetland Evaluation Technique (WET) can provide a qualitative rating of high, moderate, or low on up to 11 separate functions such as floodwater alteration and aquatic diversity/a bundance, indicating a probability level that a wetland is able to provide the function. WET was designed to provide an initial , rapid assessment of functions. It is intended for users who do not have an interdisciplinary team of wetland scientists on hand . It serves as a checklist to help users consider multiple functions , and as a method of examining functions or wetlands in a relative fashion . WET was not designed to provide qu antitative results as the ratings are in the form of ordinal data and cannot be mathematically manipulated. The magnitude of difference between a wetland rated "high" in sediment retention and one rated "moderate" is unknown , and not necessarily the same difference as that between "moderate" and "low". The magnitude of production of a function is also unknown . WET was not designed to combine function ratings into one overall wetland score . As it currently exists, WET does not incorporate temporal considerations. The Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP), developed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service with the assistance of several Federal agencies , quantify fish and wildlife habitat. HEP produces HU's based on multiplying habitat area by an index of habitat quality (Habitat Suitability Index (HSI)) for selected fish and wildlife species or other evaluation element of interest such as a species life stage . Additional calcu lations in HEP produce Average Annual Habitat Units to incorporate changes in habitat quality and quantity over time. Benefits of HEP include its quantified results, the structured process, encouragement of a team approach to the evaluation, and the ability to tailor an evaluation to a specific location and important resources. Any fish or wildlife species or community in any ecosystem may be evaluated, once the appropriate models are constructed. However, HEP quantifies only fish and wildlife habitat. The utility and quality of a HEP application depends equall y on accurate delineation of acreage and determination of HSI scores. Habitat Suitability Index models do not incorporate several factors such as climatic factors, interspecies relationships, and human interference. Judgment must be app li ed for the consideration of these factors . HEP itself is a well-established and tested process, although an insufficient number of single-species Habitat Suitability Index models exist to cover the United States . Those models published by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service number 130; of the 88 non-aquatic models , about half are for species that use wetlands. However, many additional models exist locally . Further, data on species of interest are often available, the Appendix/ Credit Valuation and Trading techniques for constructing and modifying models are availab le, and there are alternative ways of deriving an HSI score besides using an HSI model. HEP h as many precursors , and there are several modificatio ns. The most common modification is an alternate way of deriving the index of quality (HS I), e.g., the Missouri HEP which uses wildlife models built for land use and wildlife management purposes . There is also a fisheries version for the Missouri area called Aq uatic Habitat Appraisal Guide. The Habitat Evaluation System (HES) and a 1976 version of HEP were designed to determine habitat quality for multiple species in a given land use cover type . HES , designed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, examines an entire wetland for the structural indicators of habitat rather than selecting species themselves as function indicators . Thus , the output, is a single-score "wetland quality index." In order for a wetland mitigation bank credit c urrency to work it must be able to represent a sufficient range of values and functions and yet be s imple to determine and to monitor. As described above, none of the existing systems completely fulfill the requirements . The simple systems can overlook criti cal functions. The multivariate systems lack capability to evaluate every function with same detail as more limited techniques . The need for a better method by which to evaluate wetland functions has been recognized by Federal agenci es. The U.S. Army Engineers Watetways Experiment Station's Wetlands Research Program (WRP) is building a function evaluation method to replace WET that will provide resu lts on a ratio scale and improved accuracy. The new method will mimic the HEP accounting system and the HSI concept with Functional Indices for each function and Wetland Functional Units that incorporate area. The new method will include a hydrogeomorphic 53 Appendix I Credit Valuation and Trading subclassification of wetland ecosystems and identify what functions are performed by each subclass. The WRP will also identify indicators that describe the functions . B. Credit Trading Once the ecological value of permitted wetland impacts and bank replacement wetlands have been assessed in the same manner and measured in the same credit currency, it then must be determined how many bank credits will be needed to provide the required compensatory mitigation for the permitted impacts . The terms by which bank credits are traded for units of permitted wetland loss can be termed the "trading ratio" (or compensation ratio). Key issues relating to the determination of the trading ratio for any particular bank trade include questions relating to who should make this determination as well as how and when it should be made. It is the responsibility of regulators to determine the trading ratio required for any particular use of bank credits as compensatory mitigation in order to ensure that regulatory goals are achieved. The presumption is that regulators will make this decision for each fill permit proposing to use a bank so as to ensure that, at a minimum, mitigation trades result in no-net-loss in the long-term functioning of wetlands in the applicable watershed. In other words, baseline trading ratios should be at least 1: 1 for mitigation credits defined in terms of wetland functions. To illustrate the 1: 1 trading ratio, consider the following hypothetical example . Assume that a permitted development project will result in the unavoidable loss of one wetland acre , and the permittee decides to pay a commercial mitigation bank to provide the required compensatory mitigation. Assume further that regulators, using the bank credit valuation protocol, determine that the impacted wetland has twice as much ecological value as that of the bank wetland . The 1: 1 trading ratio for credits defined in terms of functional 54 units, when translated into areal requirements for compensatory mitigation, would thus require two acres of bank wetlands as compensation for the one acre of permitted wetland loss. Regulators may , however, make the trading ratio for any bank trade higher than 1: 1 for three possible reasons. For example, the trading ratio might be adjusted upward to account for the risk of mitigation failure . The use of trading ratios for this purpose was discussed in Section IDC of the report as one among several possible ways in which regulators might insure against the risk of mitigation failure. A second reason why regulators may want to adjust trading ratios upward involves possible temporal losses in wetland functioning between the time at which bank wetlands are used as the basis for credit trades, and the time at which these wetlands reach functional maturity . A higher trading ratio for this purpose would thus trade-off less than equivalent functional value in the short- term for the opportunity to obtain a net gain in wetland functioning in the long-term. Finally based on analysis , regulators may want to adjust trading ratios upward to ensure that bank trades result in no-net-loss in wetland acreage as well as function. For example, it is possible that a bank trade based on a 1: 1 trading ratio for credits (as defined in terms of units of wetland functioning) could result in a net loss in wetland acreage while at the same time ensuring functional equivalency. This could happen if the bank wetlands were judged to have greater ecological value than the impacted wetlands , so that when the 1 : 1 trading ratio for credits was translated into areal requirements for compensatory mitigation , less than one acre of bank wetlands would be required for every one acre of permitted wetland impact. In such cases regulators may choose to adjust the trading ratio upward to ensure no-net- loss in both wetland acreage and function . Moreover, even in cases in which a 1: 1 trading ratio would ensure a no-net-loss in both function and area, regulators might dictate higher than 1 : 1 trading ratios if they sought to achieve net gains in wetland function or acreage through bank trades. In the commercial mitigation banking context, however, the need for regulators to adjust trading ratios to account for risk and temporal concerns may often be minimal or non-existent. For example, the use of some other mechanism for insuring against the risk of mitigation failure (e .g ., performance bonding) would obviate the need to secure insurance through higher trading ratios . Similarly, possible bank requirements for "advanced" mitigation could eliminate potential problems involving temporal losses in wetland functioning. For these reasons, the commercial mitigation banking context should reduce the need for regulators to collapse several considerations into the determination of trading ratios, thus freeing regulators to determine appropriate bank trades based on functional equivalency. Appendix I Credit Valuation and Trading The final consideration for the determination of trading ratios is when this determination should be made . As long as ratios are based on credits defined in terms of functional units, regulators can state up-front that all credit trades involving a particular bank would be exchanged on a 1: 1 basis , or some higher basis to account for risk, temporal concerns, or a net gain objective. Then for each proposed bank trade regulators could determine the areal mitigation requirements that would achieve stated objectives. However, in the commercial banking context it does not make any sense to define up-front a set trading ratio for all bank trades if ratios are defined in terms of acres rather than credits measuring wetland functioning. This is because the particular wetland impacts to be compensated for through a commercial bank are not known in advance of trades. 55 BLANK PAGE (Skip) 56 To construct and test the arguments presented in this report, interviews were conducted with prospective bank entrepreneurs and Federal and state field regulators and resource agency officials around the country . A list of the individuals interviewed is provided in the acknowledgements for this report. An initial interview round was conducted with the entrepreneurs and mitigation consultants backing several proposed banks . The interviews, numbering about 10, were centered along the east and west coasts . A second round of interviews was then conducted with the entrepreneurs and consultants behind approximately one-half of the banks surveyed in the initial round of interviews . Interviews were also conducted with field regulators and resource agency officials who were considering these banking proposals. The banks chosen for the second round interviews included two--the Millhaven Plantation Bank (Georgia) and the Florida Wetlandsbank--which received Federal regulatory approval during the course of the study and are now operating, the proposed Neabsco Wetland Bank (Virginia) which is in the final stages of negotiation, and several other prospective banks which are in various stages of the planning and negotiation process but which appear far from regulatory approval. In order to preserve confidentiality and not color the negotiation of the proposed banking ventures, only the three banks cited above are mentioned by name. The interviews were conducted to gain insight about the barriers to widespread establishment of private commercial mitigation banking and ways in which they might be overcome . The general themes uncovered in the interviews are reflected in the study conclusions and recommendations provided throughout this report . This appendix discussion includes brief summaries of the perspectives of APPENDIX II. GENERAL INTERVIEW RESULTS each of the relevant groups--bank entrepreneurs, field regulators , and resource agency field staff. The summaries explore each group's general expectations and concerns regarding: I . Nature of the enterprise 2. Mitigation site, plan , and expertise 3. Timing of credit marketability 4. Balancing of trading rules 5 . Credit valuation and trading . The summaries conclude with a review of the relevant group's general perceptions regarding the opportunities for , constraints to, and risks of private credit market systems . A. Bank Entrepreneurs The entrepreneurs who have developed or are seeking to develop private commercial mitigation banks include : (I) those that wish to establish themselves regionally or even nationally in the credit supply business (i.e., those who wish to open large scale banks or bank chains), and; (2) those seeking to open a single commercial bank on lands that they own, and that in some cases may have low development value. The first group generally has sophisticated knowledge of wetland regulations and is keenly aware of the need for more ecologically successful mitigation and the demand for readily-available mitigation. Based on this knowledge and the encouragement of local regulators, these entrepreneurs have identified commercial banking as a new profit-making opportunity and have pulled together the mitigation expertise and capital necessary to get it done. Although there are exceptions , these entrepreneurs generally have sought out bank sites that are favorable for mitigation success, have purchased or leased these lands, and have developed carefully thought-out mitigation plans that provide 57 Appendix II General Interview Results for diversity and biological integration with surrounding areas . For example, the Millhaven Plantation Bank and the Florida Wetlandsbank, the owners of which hope to expand their interests in the credit supply business , share these characteristics . The entrepreneurs in the other group have also identified local demands for mitigation credits , but they seem more opportunistic in the sense that they are trying to make the best use of lands they already own. In general, these entrepreneurs have sites which are much smaller and in some cases less favorable for mitigation success than those of the entrepreneurs seeking to become credit suppliers on a large scale . Moreover, with some exceptions , these entrepreneurs appear to have less mitigation know-how and experience , and face more restrictive resource constraints. The narrow focus on particular mitigation sites and other constraints may limit the ability of these entrepreneurs to develop mitigation plans and agree to trading rules that will satisfy regulators . With regard to the negotiation of trading rules , there is widespread agreement among entrepreneurs regarding bank rules for the timing of credit marketability . Virtually all of the entrepreneurs interviewed for this study argued that their banking ventures would not be economically viable if they were not allowed to sell credits until functioning or self-maintaining replacement wetlands had been achieved at bank sites . While some entrepreneurs said they could operate if credit sales were restricted until the point at which mitigation construction for some phase was complete or soon thereafter, others indicated that they need the ability to provide mitigation concurrently with credit sales. For example, the owners of the Florida Wetlandsbank successfully argued to regulators that the economics of their venture depends on the ability to use revenues from credit sales to provide the mitigation compensation for those credits . 58 The one prospective private commercial bank that has so far agreed to provide fully advanced mitigation did so only after negotiating a separate bank provision that would ease the financial burden of the advanced mitigation requirement. The draft MOA for the proposed Neabsco Wetland Bank in Virginia says that credit sales will be restricted until functioning wetlands have been achieved at the bank site; however, the MOA also includes a provision designed to enable the bank to generate cash flow before credit sales are actually made. This provision says that the bank site can be used to provide concurrent mitigation of off-site impacts up to 7 .5 acres, but such mitigations would not be considered part of the bank. In other words, a permit applicant would be allowed to satisfy his or her project-specific mitigation needs by paying the banker to concurrently create equivalent wetland acres at the bank site, but these replacement wetlands would not be recorded as bank credits or debits . In addition, the draft MOA for the proposed Neabsco bank does not include any cost liability for mitigation failure (i .e ., financial assurance) for advanced mitigations on which credit sales will be based. Similarly , the owners of the Florida Wetlandsbank were able to secure a prov1s1on which says that the performance bonding requirement for bank mitigations that are done concurrently with credit sales is waived in the case of any credit sales based on advanced mitigation. The trade-off between rules for the timing of credit marketability and other trading rules , particularly that for failure liability , illustrate bankers' concerns about potentially redundant bank requirements that they believe would eliminate the economic viability of credit market systems . Bank entrepreneurs note that on-site mitigation efforts are typically not held to advanced mitigation nor financial assurance requirements. The bankers feel that if regulators create a double standard with regards to both types of trading rules, they will choke off the opportunity for an ecologically superior alternative to on-site mitigation . While the prospective bankers are adamant about the need for flexibility regarding the timing of credit marketability , they generally appear willing to agree to other trading rules--including cost liability for project failure--that regulators might want to impose to limit and allocate the risk of mitigation failure . Most bankers say they will agree to standards for performance, monitoring and maintenance, and financial assurance if these requirements are reasonable in light of bank circumstances and if they are in force for a reasonably limited period of time (e .g ., 5 years). There is one important operational issue which has been the subject of disagreement between some prospective bankers and regulators: credit valuation and trading. A number of entrepreneurs express the view that the credit supply business depends on having a set methodology for evaluating credit worth and determining how many credits are required for any particular trade . For example, the owners of the Florida Wetlandsbank successfully argued to regulators that they need a standard credit/debit method in order to provide upfront cost estimates to potential customers for satisfying their total mitigation needs through the bank. However, other bank entrepreneurs do not feel strongly about this issue. The permit for the Millhaven Plantation Bank, for example, gives the local regulator complete discretion to use any method to determine functional values and trading ratios on a case-by-case basis . For the most part, the bank entrepreneurs interviewed for this study are knowledgeable about wetland regulations and have spotted the profit- making opportunity available to those who can efficiently provide high-quality, off-site mitigation . Bank entrepreneurs have identified several sources of demand for bank credits , including applicants for individual and/or general permits (particularly Nationwide 26 permits) under the Section 404 program , and state permits for wetland impacts that fall outside Federal jurisdiction. Some prospective Appendix II General Interview Results bankers are even tailoring their banks to serve particular types of regulatory permits to avoid the jurisdiction of certain government agencies that they feel are opposed to private credit market systems . The desire of some bank entrepreneurs to avoid dealing with certain government agencies illustrates one of the major frustrations voiced by prospective credit suppliers . In general , bank entrepreneurs are pleased with the cooperation and encouragement provided by Federal and state regulators, although some prospective bankers say that Corps field offices are too understaffed to deal with bank negotiations in a timely manner. However, many of the bank entrepreneurs single out one or more of the Federal resource agencies (i .e ., Environmental Protection Agency , Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Marine Fisheries Service) as unresponsive or even hostile to bank proposals and generally against the concept of commercial banking . Bankers hypothesize several possible reasons for the perceived opposition by resource agencies--they have a larger agenda of trying to completely stop wetlands development ; they are against anyone realizing a profit as a result of the regulatory program; they fear that the reality of successful off-site mitigation will compromise the mitigation sequencing requirements of the regulatory program . In addition to these perceived barriers to entry into the credit supply business, many existing and prospective bankers point to certain extra-market risks facing banks once they become operational. One is the risk of regulatory change . Since the existence and structure of private markets in mitigation credits depend on regulatory polices, future policy changes could ruin the best laid plans of bank entrepreneurs. Another risk involves the on-site mitigation option: bankers express the fear that if regulators continue to give preference to on- si te mitigation and allow it to be done "on-the- 59 Appendix II General Interview Results cheap", this will depress the demand for bank credits based on high-quality, off-site mitigation . Similarly, some bank entrepreneurs are beginning to see a potential threat from recent government interest in publicly owned and operated commercial mitigation banks and in-lieu fee systems. The risk noted here involves the possibility that governments will subsidize the production of mitigation credits and end up offering credits for sale at prices which undercut private banks. B. Regulators Many of the regulators interviewed for this study were associated with recently approved banks and banks that are nearing final approval. Not surprisingly this subset of regulators generally voice strong support for private commercial mitigation banking . They see specific benefits from the opportunity to use private banks to secure more ecologically successful mitigation in cases involving small wetland impacts . However, there seems to be receptivity among all regulators to banking proposals. Although they are working in the absence of explicit policy guidance , regulators appear fairly consistent in what they expect of private bank mitigations. First, regulators generally want relatively large areas of diverse replacement wetlands, including upland islands and buffers, that are well-situated for biological integration with surrounding areas . Second, regulators expect bank mitigations to involve primarily the restoration of former or severely degraded wetland areas ; wetland creation and enhancement are typically viewed as acceptable supplemental features of bank mitigations if they fit well with wetland restoration plans . Regulators have much more confidence in the long-term viability of bank mitigations that rely on the use of former or degraded wetlands areas where the underlying hydrology is intact or can be relatively easily restored to a self-maintaining 60 status. By contrast, many regulators are wary of wetland creation efforts, particularly if the water flow must be artificially supplied and/or maintained . Finally, regulators expect bank entrepreneurs to use mitigation consultants who have specialized expertise and experience in the design and construction of wetland restoration projects. Regulators appear to be particularly skeptical of prospective banks that are proposing to use mitigation consultants who do not have prior experience or a good track record with designing and constructing mitigation projects under the regulatory program. Regulators have forged ahead with the negotiation of bank proposals that meet the criteria outlined above, but they have been much less willing to negotiate with prospective bankers who resist fashioning bank plans to satisfy these criteria. Jn cases in which regulators believe that bank sites or mitigation plans are fatally flawed, or the proposed mitigation contractor is unqualified, bank negotiations have not proceeded very far. Jn general, those prospective bankers who are seeking to establish large-scale banks, have actively searched for favorable sites, and have the necessary mitigation expertise have been warmly received by regulators. However, the study interviews uncovered one prospective banker who wanted to establish a nationwide chain of banks but whose plans regulators were concerned about. Regulators (and resource agency field staff) were apprehensive because this entrepreneur had developed and distributed promotional material that implies that the firm had one ongoing, successful mitigation bank although the firm had not in fact secured Federal or state permission to create and sell credits. Regulators also appear to be particularly wary of those who they believe are just trying to profit from lands that have low development value but may not be particularly favorable for mitigation success . Regulators appear to be very flexible about rules for the timing of credit marketability for those bank proposals that they view favorably . Although regulators express a preference for advanced mitigation, they recognize that requiring replacement wetlands to be fully functional before credit sales are permitted would in most cases eliminate the economic viability of private credit market systems. Accordingly , they generally agree with the call for flexibility in the timing issue of credit sales in order to get private commercial banking off the ground . Generally , regulators are willing to allow credit sales immediately after the completion of a mitigation phase or soon thereafter. However, some appear will in g to allow even earlier credit sales if they have a good idea of the type and quantity of wetlands that will result from bank mitigations, and if there is a lo w probability of project failure . In exchange for allowing early credit sales, regulators expect private banks to agree to a set of bank requirements and trading rules to limit and allocate the risks of project fai lure. Regulators want bank permits to include success criteria (i.e ., performance standards) for bank mitigations, monitoring and maintenance requirements to uncover and correct deficiencies , and provisions to ensure long-term status of mitigation sites as wetlands . Regulators also expect bankers to assume financial responsibility for mitigation failure ; however, regulators recognize that rules for allocating cost liability must be reasonably related to failure probability and repair costs for each case. Thus , for examp le, regulators seem willing to waive financia l assurance requirements if banks provide advanced mitigation for credit sales . In addition, regulators seem to recognize that bankers should be held to trading rules for performance , monitoring and maintenance, and cost liability for failure for a reasonably limited period of time. One trad in g rule that regulators genera ll y view as non-negotiable involves the techniques to be used for valuing credit worth and making trade- Appendix II General Interview Results offs between banked and permitted wetlands. With one notable exception (in the case of the Florida Wetlandsbank), the regulators interviewed for this study express the need for flexibility to evaluate bank mitigations and determine trading ratios on a case-by-case basis . Regulators generally do not think that any one of the available functional assessment methodologies are adequate for evaluating the relative worth of impacted and replacement wetlands. Consequently , regulators say they need to ab le use all ava il able methods and resources for eva lu ating credit worth, in c lu ding "best professional judgement", as well as the flexibility to adjust trading ratios to account for differences in quality and maturity between banked and impacted wetlands . Regulators generally see great utility from private commercial mitigation banking provided that banks meet the conditions and criteria outlined above . However, regulators view commercial banking as appropriate in limited situations-- specifically for small wetland impacts such as those permitted under Nationwide 26 permits or that fall o ut side Federal regulatory jurisdiction. Regulators do not seem enthusiastic about using private banks to secure compensatory mitigation in cases of individual permits involving large wetland impacts; a lmo st all of the regulators interviewed for this study believe that on-site mitigation shou ld be required in such cases . Additionally , regulators generally do not view banking as appropriate m areas which have little remaining wetlands . Further, regulators express support for the mitigation seq uencing rules required under Federal wetland reg ul ations. They feel that the existence of bank replacement wetlands should not affect the current responsibility of permit applicants to first make all practicable efforts to avoid and minimize wetland impacts . When prompted, regulators acknowledge that more flexibility in mitigation sequencing rules might be appropriate if the regulatory program were integrated with local watershed planning initiative s. However, some 61 Appendix II General Interview Results were skeptical about the ability to effectively promote this outcome . When asked about the claim by bank entrepreneurs that the resource agencies pose a barrier to private credit market systems, the regulators interviewed offered somewhat differing perspectives. Some indicate that they do not believe the resource agencies are against the general concept; rather , these regulators feel that the re so urce agencies just want to make sure that commercial banks ensure ecological success. One regulator, however, said that the resource agency field offices in his area were against the concept for various reasons , including a distaste for anyone profiting from wetland regulation. Given these perspectives , regulators generally indicated that were seeking to negotiate bank agreements and largely finalize contract language before proceeding to the re so urce agencies for review and comment. Finally, when asked about the potential utility of publicly owned and operated commercial mitigatio n banks , regulators note a number of risks with this mitigation option . Regulators cite potential problems with financing and management , and also echo the main concern of bank entrepreneurs: that public banks might actually end up subsidizing wetland development and undercutting private banks . C. Resource Agencies The resource agency staff in the field offices generally show cautious support for the use of private commercial banking to secure compensatory mitigation in cases involving small, i s olated wetland impacts . At the same time, however, they see many potential problems and risks with commercial banking that they feel must be carefully accounted for in individual bank agreements. Many resource agency field staff seem to trust regul ators to adequately deal with such problems and risks in the negotiation of bank agreements. For this reason , most resource agency 62 field offices have not been actively involved with bank negotiations , although one did work closely with the regulatory authorities in the negotiation proce ss for the Millhaven Plantation bank. Resource agencies appear to want much of the same things that regulators require concerning bank siting and mitigation plans . They specifically note that bank sites should already have largely intact hydrology , and thus favor the use of former wetland areas such as prior-converted farmlands for bank siting . They also express the need for upland buffers at bank sites, and the view that s uch buffers should not be the basis for bank credits. Further, resource agency officials feel strongly that bank mitigations should not involve wetland creation for a number of reasons , including : I) the need for bank mitigations that are self-sustaining ; 2) a general belief that wetland creation doesn't work; and 3) the view that uplands should not be used to produce wetland mitigations . Resource agency staff feel very strongly that credit sales from private commercial mitigation banks should be based on advanced mitigation if at all possible . However, based largely on the arguments of regulators, most now see that the economic viability of private credit markets depends on some form of early credit sales in most cases. In return for early credit sales , the resource agencies expect bank agreements to include stringent trading rules to limit and allocate the risks of mitigation failure . Re so urce agencies feel, as do regulators , that bank agreements should include well-specified performance standards , monitoring and maintenance requirements, and provisions for long- term site management that ensure bank sites will remain as viable wetland areas into perpetuity . However, they generally are more cautious with respect to such requirements than many of the regulators interviewed for this study. For example, although resource agency staff are generally satisfied with the bank provisions and trading rules written into the Federal permits for the Millhaven Plantation bank and the Florida Wetlandsbank , some are uncomfortable with certain aspects of tho se agreements. The way that long-term site management was handled in the permits for the two banks provides a case in point. The entrepreneurs behind the Millhaven P lantation bank lease the bank site from a pri vate landowner that has on-going forestry operations on adjoining lands . The Millhaven bank agreement is contingent upon a conservation easement on the bank site into perpetuity that allows the landowner to perform selective timber cutting at the bank site subject to certain conditions designed to prevent harm to bank wetlands. One resource agency staff member expressed concern that such activities could comprom1se the long-term viability of bank wetlands . The site on which the Florida Wetlandsbank is located is owned by a municipality . The land was actually dedicated as a wetlands preserve years ago but has since become a degraded and largely non-functioning ecosystem invaded by exotic vegetation . One state resource agency objects to the use of public lands to produce bank mitigations that can be used to offset wetlands development. This agency argues that the use of private monies to restore lands in public ownership could result in a net loss of wetlands in the state. This agency would prefer to see public lands restored with public funds, and private lands restored with private funds . Resource agency field staff echo the need expressed by regulators for regulatory flexibility to Appendix II General Interview Results use any available methods and resources to evaluate the worth of bank credits and adjust trading ratios on a case-by-case basis. They also feel strongly that they should have the opportunity to review and comment on all proposed trades , as they currently do for proposed on-site mitigation plans . Resource agency staff see benefits from the use of carefully structured private commercial banks specifically for securing compensation in cases involving small, isolated wetland impacts . They generally do not support the use of banking in cases involving more significant wetland impacts , and also feel strongly that banking should not be an option in areas with little remaining wetlands. Resource agency staff stress the need for on-site mitigation in such cases to preserve site-specific wetland functions . While acknowledging the potential benefits of private credit markets , resource agency staff also see many potential risks . They are very wary of potential opportunistic prospective bankers who they think may try to profit from lands they already own, but who have unsophisticated knowledge of and/or experience with wetlands mitigation . Many also fear that the widespread existence of private commercial banks would lead to pressure to relax the full mitigation sequencing rules of the regulatory program . Although they support integrating the regulatory program with watershed plans , they generally do not think this should provide the basis for more regulatory flexibility. Some mention the risk that localities bent on development might use watershed planning initiatives toward promoting wetland development and not wetlands management. 63 ~ , J --:-~ .. "i:• .. ~ "" -":~-------~--~ ~ ~.J .... .. ' -.. ' " ~ .Ji ""' = ·· enviroScage ~ Patent No. 5,427,530 ® --"' ., :_ USER'S GUIDE - •• enviroScape Patent No. 5,427,5JO ® enviroScape® c/o JT&A, inc. 14524-F Lee Road Chantilly, VA 20151 Tel: (703) 631 -8810 Fax : (703) 631-6558 i nfo@enviroscapes .com www.enviroscapes .com To EnviroScape® WETLANDS Users: Thank you for using EnviroScape Wetlands -one in a series of EnviroScape models available. Please take care to note the following: 1. Constructed Wetland Packet. Please make sure the model's surface is very wet before you place the adhesive felt pieces on the model, and never leave the felt pieces on the model for an extended period of time . This should alleviate any potential sticking to the model. 2. Working Storm Pipe. Designed to demonstrate dumping potential pollutants down the drain . You can choose to shorten the pipe with scissors (but take care not to cut it too short which would make it difficult to reinsert). The pipe is removable for easy cleaning. There is no drain provided to connect to the pipe. 3. To Use the Groundwater Component with the Wetlands model, some modifications to the wetlands landscape map are necessary. Please contact EnviroScape headquarters at 703-631-8810 if you need these modifications made. 4. Let us know about your experience with EnviroScape Wetlands! Send us any hints or suggestions you may have that we can share with other users -or improvements you'd like to see made. And don't forget to send us photos and stories of your events for EnviroScape News. 5. Visit our website at www.enviroscapes.com for "User Tips" and to sign-up for our "E-mail List," so you can receive information via email regarding other tips , programs, conferences and MORE ... relating to the EnviroScape program. We look forward to hearing about your experience with EnviroScape and to helping you meet your environmental education needs. Sincerely, Carlene Bahler Presiden t • • e9() enviroScape -Ho. 5,A21,"'1 ® ~,.. 0 CHECK FOR CONTENTS! A GES 5 AND OVE R Please make sure your enviroScape® WETLANDS unit includes ... [turn over tor wetlands landscape diagram]~ This i s th e inve ntory c hec klist for yo ur new EnviroSca p e W etlands D e lu xe Kit (item 71 OOSB W or 71 OOS CW) or your n ew EnviroScape W et land s Add -on Unit (i tem 71 OOSWET ). Items marked with an asterisk (*) are not included if you purchased the EnviroScape Wetlands Add-on Unit since they a re inducted with your EnviroScape Non point Source Unit (item 7 10058 o r 7 1 OOSC). Pl ease re port a ny mi ss in g or defect ive item to u s i mmediate ly, within ten (10) workin g days by ca l I ing (7 0 3) 63 1 -8810 . Produ c t numbers are provided for replacement purposes and are not marked on al l items . D 1 wetlands land scape ma p w/sto rm pipe (cle ar tube) [601 71 D 1 c lea r rectangu l ar base* [SOS8J D 1 shopping center bui lding w/parking lot [S0 30J D 1 marina build in g w/boat slips [S029) D 2 striped bridges 1soo21 D 1 plain bridge [S003J D 2 round trees* [SOO SJ D 1 tall trees [S 006J D 2 tall trees* [50061 D 1 sponge p ac k (wetlands) [S043J D 1 rubbe r plug (#3) [S001J D 1 measuring c up [60 181 D 2 fe lt packs (co nstructed wetla n ds) [S044J D 1 cotton swab pack (wetl and plant roots) [60 191 D 2 spray bottl es (8 oz .) [60201 D 1 eco -spout [so 1 SJ D 1 clay stick [sos21 D 1 W et lands User's Guide 1soso1 D 1 vi nyl ba g (contains accesso ries) D 2 houses* [SOJO ) D 1 barn* [SO l 21 D 1 factory w /c lea r tube connected* [SOl 41 D 2 golf flags* [S004J D 3 cows* [S007J D 2 cars* [60211 D 1 bu I I dozer* [60131 D 1 squirt bottl e* [60221 D 1 wate r tray* [6038] D 2 white round co ntainers conta ining green & red drink mix, and cocoa* [60231 D 1 spoon an d sponge* [S060J D 1 carrying case* (provided with Item 71 OOSBW) [50281 Replacement or additional parts can be purchased at your local stores, or by calling (703) 631-8810 -ask for Replacement Cost Sheet. Remember to visit our website at www.enviroscapes.com. IMPORTANT: If you're not 100% sa tisfied , you can ret urn your enviroScape WETLANDS to us for a full refund less shipping cos ts . CONDITIONS: The model must be return ed within ten (10) working days; all p arts must be included (the cost of missing or broken parts not previously identified to us will be deducted from any refund); and the model and its parts must be clean and in resalable condition. Returns should be sent to: EnviroScape, c/o JT&A, inc., 14524-F Lee Road, Chantilly, VA 20151. You Will Need Water Before You Bel{in! @ 0 Printed on recycled paper. /T&A, inc. (703-631-8810) Patent No. 5,427,530 © 2000 shopping center parking lot ® Holes for use with Groundwater unit. If you plan to use the groundwater unit with your wetlands model, your map will need to be modified to Include holes as indicated on the drawing above. Please call us at 703/631-881 Oto arrange for these modifications. JT&A, inc. (703-631-8810) Patent No. 5,427,530 © 1999 . . -I I I I I . I 1. I I I I I I I I I • • CONTENTS Organization of This Guide ............................. 1 Notes to the F aci I itator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 How to Use This Guide ........................... 3 Suggested Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 DEMONSTRATION l : How Wetlands Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s STEP 1 : Prepare the Model ................................. 5 STEP 2: Check Your Audience's Awareness .................... 7 STEP 3: Give a Brief Overview of Wetlands .................... 8 STEP 4: Perform Activities ................................ 1 3 ACTIVITY 1: Demonstrate water-holding, absorbing capacity ... 13 ACTIVITY 2: Demonstrate flood reduction and erosion control .. 15 ACTIVITY 3: Demonstrate sediment holding and filtering ...... 16 ACTIVITY 4: Demonstrate wildlife habitat .................. 18 STEP 5: Summary Discussion .............................. 19 continued on next page ... CONTENTS ... DEMONSTRATION 2: How We Affect Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 STEP 1 : Pr epare the Model ................................ 21 STEP 2: Check Your Audience's Awareness ................... 23 STEP 3 P f A ... : er orm ct1v1t1es ................................ 23 ACTIVITY 1: Develop a shopping ce nter ................... 23 ACTIVITY 2: Constructed wetlands ....................... 26 ACTIVITY 3: Farming a wetland .......................... 28 ACTIVITY 4: Restorin g a wetland ......................... 29 OPTIONAL ACTIVITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 OPTIONAL ACTIVITY 1: Stormwater control •..•••.••....•.. 31 OPTIONAL ACTIVITY 2: Filtering ........................ 32 CLEAN-UP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 A FINAL NOTE: Wetland connections to groundwater ....... 35 ADDITIONAL MATERIALS Background Information on Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 G I o s s a ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7 For additional resources and current information on EnviroScape products, visit us at http://www.enviroscapes.com or call us at 703/631-8810. 8nviroScape is a registered trademark of JT&A, inc., patent number 5,427,530. The objective of enviroScape Wetlands is to create awareness of wetlands as a whole, not to single out any industry or land use as a contributor to wetlands degradation. Mention of tradenames or other products does not constitute endorsements. © 1999 JT&A, inc. CONTENTS Notes to the Facilitator ................................ 1 Using the Model ...................................... 3 STEP 1: Check for Contents ............................ 3 STEP 2: Prepare the Model ............................. 3 STEP 3: Give a Brief Overview of Riparian Areas ............ 4 STEP 4: Perform Activities .............................. 7 8nviroScape® is a registered trademark and patented product of JT&A, inc., patent number 5,427,530 . enviroScape Riparian Kit intends to create awareness of riparian issues as a whole, not to single out any industry or land use as a contributor to riparian degradation. Mention of trade names or other products does not constitute endorsement. .. NOTES TO THE FACILITATOR This activity g uide is written for us e with th e 8nviroScape Wetlands landscape. The riparian kit may also be u sed with other scenar ios, including the 8nviroScape Nonpoint Source unit. In addition to showing you how to set up and operate the riparian kit, this guide provides basic information about riparian issues . It is not, however, a comprehensive guide to riparian issues, and it assumes that you are already familiar with nonpoint sources of pollution using the 8nviroScape Nonpoint Source unit. .. NOTES TO THE FACILITATOR How to Use This Guide This g uide is written for easy reading and understandin g . W e rec omm e nd that each facilitator read throu g h th e guide at lea st on ce b efor e demonstrating the model. The guide is a teaching aid -you will want to follow its instructions while demonstrating the model. Experience shows that after two or three demonstrations, you will probably not use the gu id e during demonstrations . It will remain, however, one of your most important references. A SPECIAL NOTE : Although each demonstration provide s for individual ac tiviti es, you may choose to combine a number of these activities into one major activity depending on your needs. Suggested Activities enviroScape can be used to demonstrate al I types of wetlands. Among those who can tell you about specific wetlands and the wetland plants found in your area are • local, state or district conservation offices; • local, state or federal Extension Service or N atural Resources Conservation Service offices; and • other state or federal agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, the Fish and Wildlife Service, and state departments of natural resources, conservation and environment. NOTES TO THE FACILITATOR ... In fact, after you've demon st rat ed th e basic wetlands co n ce pt s using enviroScape, you m ay want to invite a representative from one of these agencies to talk to your group about loca l wetland l andsca p es. • Begin your demonstration with a list of th e values a nd functions of wetlands. Following the demonstration, ask the participants to li st them again. • Find out your local rainfall amounts and patterns. When do the heavy rains occur? What is the average amount of rainfall during a rainfall event? Perhaps 90 percent of rainfalls average less than 1 inch, but frequent, small storms may be significant from a nonpoint source pollution standpoint. • Find out the types of wetlands and wetland plants common to your area. • Demonstrate the model with a story -invite your audience to describe what they think this landscape was like 50 years ago, 100 years ago, before colonial times. Tell a story about land us es. Why are wetlands important? Be c ause these areas have uniqu e functions and values . .. .. DEMONSTRATION 1 How WETLANDS WORK FAC I LITATOR 'S NOTE : Thi s d e mon str ation i s an o ve rvi e w of th e b as i c fun c ti o n s and va l u es of a wet l and . STEP l: Prepare the Model 1. Re m ove a ll item s from the case . 2. Place the enviro Scape W etlands landsca p e on th e base as shown be low. HOW WETLANDS WORK ... NOTE: if you do not have 8nviroScape Groundwater, skip Step 3. 3. Place the g roundwater liner in the base of the model as instru cted in the envi roScape Groundwater operating g uid e. If your wetlands map has not yet been adapted for use with the groundwater unit, plea se call us at 703-631-881 O. 4. Place th e houses , barn and factory (the industri al plant) on th e model . 5. Add the bridges, vehicles and go lf fla gs (use cl ay to form a mound and in se rt the golf fla g in th e mound). 6. Place wetlands A through F (s ponges) on th e model as indi cated in the dia g ram below. 7. Place trees on the model using clay to form tree trunks: put two tall trees in th~ trunk s in the forest, put one tall tree in the forested wetland (8) and place the round trees in the re si dential area. 8. Insert cotton swabs through the slit in wetland A and through the holes in the wetland A area of the landscape. The top half of each swab stays above the model ; the bottom half shows through the base. • Wetlands Location Key Open Reid (or Prair1e) Wetlands A shoreline marsh B. forested wetland C. riverine wetland by farm D. riverine wetland by the highway E. shoreline wetland F. farm site wetland . ' ' l I I I 1 .. 9. IMPORTANT NOTE: Slide the open container under the drain in the bottom of the waterbody. 1 0. Put the plug in the waterbody's drain. (It is not necessary to force the plug.) 11. Fill two water bottles half full with water. Place your eco-spout sprinkler head on one water bottle, and set the other aside for later use. 12. To illustrate soil, sprinkle 1/2 tsp of cocoa on the construction site and on the banks above and along the shoreline. 13 . To illustrate pesticides (red drink mix) and fertilizer (green drink mix), sprinkle 1/2 tsp of each on lawns, and the golf course . 14 . To illustrate oils and grease, squirt a few drops of the oil and sludge mixture on highways, roads, parking lots and driveways. 15. Place wildlife stickers on wetland B (optional). STEP 2: Check Your Audience's Awareness Ask your audience what they think of when they hear the word "WETLAND." Their answers will give you a good indication of their perceptions and cognitive levels. ~ SUGGESTION: have your audience write down what they think a wetland is and share their answers with one another. .. HOW WETLANDS WORK ... What do you think of when you hear the word Wetland? Do you know where your nearest wetland is? STEP 3: Give a Brief Overview of Wetlands Wetlands are found throughout the world: in dry (arid) regions and in wet (humid) regions ; in cool, temperate and very hot (tropical) regions; in the middle of fields and forests; and near rivers, lakes or oceans. Because wetlands are found in so many places, they are hard to describe, and even more difficult to define. ti' But wetlands have some common characteristics: • Wetlands are a link between waterbodies and the land. We cal I them transitional areas when they bridge the gaps between land areas and water systems. Before the land ends and water begins, we find "wetlands." • Wetlands are the middle or intermediate lands. On one side is higher, dry land. On the other side is water. In the middle i s the wetland, which is land that may be permanently or seasonally flooded. • The soils in a wetland support a certain type of vegetation. Most plants, trees or shrubs that grow in a wetland are specially adapted to water -they are hydrophytic or water-loving plants. I I I I I I I I I I I -1 :ii I I I I I . . v You can recognize wetlands by looking for the following characteristics: • Water on the surface or in the root zone. This water caus es the floodin g, ponding or spongy, saturated conditions that w e ass o c iate with many types of wetlands . • Wetland soils usually hold water longer than other soils ; that is, the soils drain poorly or are strongly influenced by water and m ay lack oxygen. • The plants, trees or shrubs that grow in the wetlands -and wetland animals and microbes -are those that can live only in water or those that can adapt to alternating wet and dry conditions. IN OTHER WORDS, water, soils and vegetation are the most important w ay s to identify wetlands. Each of these components inte racts with , and influen ces, th e other two . Along with the wetland's microbial content -the many "critters " that live in the water, soil and air -these components create the condition s that determine the nature and functions of a particular wetland . Microbial activity makes the wetland a "biological supermarket" that can support a rich variety of plants and animals. Wetlands contribute in very important ways to the food chain and biodiversity. • Water. An area between water and dry land is considered a wetland if it is saturated (soaked through) with water long enough during the growing season to affect the vegetation and soil. Often the wetland is in a lowland area, where the water table is quite high. Standing water may not always be present in some wetlands, but the root zone will be saturated during some portion of the growing season . • Soils. Not surprisingly, the soils in a wetland will often look and feel wet. The Natural Resources Conservation Service classifies wetland soils as hydric soils . These soils occur in areas with high water tab l es or where frequent, long-lasting flooding or ponding occurs. Wetland soils are usually high in clay or peat content, but some wetlands will have sandy soils even though sand does not hold water as easily as other soils do. • Vegetation. Plants found in wetlands are usually hydrophytes (water-lovin g plants). They are particularly well adapted to growing in soils that are periodically or permanently saturated with water. Some wetland plants and trees cannot grow anywhere else. Over time, these plants influence the quality of the water and soil resources. They also provide habitat for many wildlife species. What Else Do Wetlands Offer? v Wetlands also provide a home to 5,000 plant species, 190 species of amphibians and a third of all native bird species. • Anima l s use wetlands for breeding, nesting and feeding, and even as escape routes. Nearly half of our threatened and endangered species, such as the whooping crane and the prairie fringed orchid, live in wetlands or depend on them. • Moreover, the wildlife and plants that live in the wetland are valuab l e parts of the wetland ecosystem -and a source of aesthetic and recreational pleasure. • Wetland plants and animals are fun to observe and give us a sense of wildness and adventure. Look how famous John James Audubon became for his many portraits of wetland birds. Many people hunt, fish, hi k e or enjoy watching birds and wildlife in the wetlands. . ' . . HOW WETLANDS WORK ... v Types of wetlands and wetland plants Typical wetland plants include reeds, sedges, rushes and some grasses; shrubs and trees, such as willow, cottonwood, sycamore, pine and cedar; other plants, such as smartweeds, water lili es, pondweeds and cattails. Of course, the wetland plants found in your region will vary with the climate and type of wetland. There are many different descriptions and types of wetlands -so many that we will not attempt to __ list them a ll. Some wetland managers and scientists classify wetlands simply as coastal wetlands or inland wetlands. • Inland wetlands -are either wet prairies, northern peatlands, southern deepwater swamps and other forested wetlands; freshwater and brackish marshes, or riparian ecosystems. About 80 percent of the wetlands in the 48 states are inland wetlands. • Coastal wetlands -are salt and freshwater marshes and . mangrove swamps. Wetlands are also classified as seasonal, temporary, semipermanent and permanent. See the glossary and recommended resources at the end of this guide for more extensive descriptions of wetland types commonly found in the United States. Think about that wet meadow by the interstate, or the low, wet place along the creek or in your field. Wetlands appear in many different landscapes - and in many different shapes. And they're found in all parts of the world except Antarctica. HOW WETLANDS WORK ... v Wetlands are among our most productive areas. They perform many useful functions that we are now beginning to recognize and appreciate . Here are some of the many functions and values of wetlands: I@' Functions • Abso r b and hold water • Slow speed of flooding • Replenish surface and groundwater supplies • Intercept runoff • Remove and process nutrients • Filter pollutants (chemical and organic wastes) • Reduce sediment loads • Bind soil to wetland plant roots • Provide food resources and habitat for birds, fish and amphibians I@' Values • Flood storage and control • Protection of property values • Water quality and availability • Erosion control and shoreline buffering • Protection of endangered spec res • Provide recreational opportunities for camping, boating, hunting, and fishing • Inspiration for art and literature • Education/Aesthetics Of course, some functions support several values! ' . HOW WETLANDS WORK ... STEP 4: Perform Activities l@f Let's take a look at some wetland functions and values. Get your audience involved in these activities! V ACTIVITY 1: DEMONSTRATE WATER-HOLDING, ABSORBING CAPACITY • • Record the amount of water in each bottle (make sure they are the same measure). • Using the bottle with the Eco-Spout, make it rain above and directly over wetland E. Continue the rain until the bottle is empty. Wetlands Location Key Open Reid (or Prairie) Wetlands A. shoreline marsh B. forested wetland C. riverine wetland by farm D. riverine wetland by the highway E. shoreline wetland F. farm site wetland Marina and Wetlands Key O pen Fie ld (or Pra irie) Farm E ~ I . ! Wetlands E. marina development • Drain the waterbody into the measuring cup a nd record the a mount. • Replace the p l ug . • Build a marina where the wetland was -that is, replace wetlan d E with the marina development (marina docks and buildin g). • Place the Eco -Spout on the second water bottle and make it rain over this area again . Continue the rain until the bottle is empty. • Drain the waterbody into the measuring cup and record the amount. • Discuss . ' . . . HOW WETLANDS WORK ..• Replacing the wetland with a marina increased the amount of runoff because the marina does not hold water as efficiently as the wetland did. V ACTIVITY 2: DEMONSTRATE FLOOD REDUCTION AND EROSION CONTROL • • Rep l ace p l ug and fi ll waterbody w it h approx i mate l y 1/4 cup of water. • Ref ill your water bott les as needed. • Ma ke it rai n by the wetl and s a lo ng th e st rea m ba nks (wetlands C and D) • D i sc u ss. Flood and Erosion Key Open Fie ld (or Prairie) Wetlands I ' C. riveri ne wetland by farm D. riverine wetland by highway HOW WETLANDS WORK ... A wetland's water-holding ability may be useful during large rainstorms. Note how the wetlands along the riverbank absorb some of the water - storing it and thereby slowing the rate of flooding. Wetlands se rve as temporary storage for water, and they empty slowly - like a clogged drain. It is this slow release that helps downstream communities plan for flood management and keeps water flowing in times of drought. By holding water temporarily, wetlands further protect the quality of the water because they also absorb some pollutants. Then, when the water is released, it will carry fewer pol l utants with it to the waterbody. And finally, by slowing the velocity or speed of runoff, wetl ands can help reduce streambank erosion. In seasons o f pro l onged, heavy downpours, this function may not work: wetlands do not have unlimited or long-time water storage capacity to prevent flooding. However, without the wetlands, flooding would be worse. V ACTIVITY 3 : DEMONSTRATE SEDIMENT HOLDING AND FILTERING • Make it rain on the residential and construction areas and over the shore l ine area (wetland A). • Discuss. First, see how the shoreline marsh absorbs and filters some of the runoff from the construction site and residential area. By absorbing some of the sediment-carrying runoff and allowing time for the sediment to settle, wetlands reduce the volume of sediments traveling to the waterbody. ' . . ' '~~n~\ -::'-~'( _/ ~" 4r1 '--" -;..-....... _,. 'Ir, ;-.-. HOW WETLANDS WORK ... Shoreline Marsh Key Open Reid (or Pralrle) Wetlands A. shoreline marsh Now look beneath the model at the corner by wetland A. See how the wetland plants soak up some of the runoff -and how the fertilizers and sediments soak into the root structure beneath the surface . The wetland plants can use some of these nutrients; the wetland itself will hold the soil. Excess nutrients running off the land (e.g., from overfertilized lawns, recreational areas or agricultural fields) are taken up by wetland plants to help them grow and reproduce, which in turn provides food and a place to live -habitat -for plants and wildlife. Without the wetland's capacity for using some nutrients, too many nutrients would get through, thereby potentially degrading the quality of the waterbody. V ACTIVITY 4: DEMONSTRATE WILDLIFE HABITAT • • Remove the forested wetland (wetland B). • Discuss . Forested Wetland Key Open Reid (or Prairie) Wetlands 8. forested wetland • How important are wetlands to wildlife? • When a wetland disappears, so does wildlife habitat. • While some species may be successful in the quest for another home, many wi ll not survive. . ' HOW WETLANDS WORK ... • Many animals depend on wetland habitats for survival; according to a recent study by the National Audubon Society, 43 percent of endangered species in the United States depend on wetlands for survival. • Moreov er, the wildlife and plants that li ve in t he wetland are valuable parts of the wet l and ecosystem -and a source of aest hetic and recreat i onal pleasure. W etland p l ants and anima l s are important to one another, fun to observe and give u s a sense of wi l dness an d adventure. They are part of the food chain, and they have important cultural and recreationa l values. STEP 5: Summary Discussion In a ll these wetl a nd areas, you h ave see n wetlands working to improve water quality . As rain soaks into each of the wetl ands, the wetl and traps sediment and other mater i als and filters out impurities before this water enters t he aquifer; the same process also helps p revent sediment, nutrients and other chemica ls from traveling downstream into surface waters. Wetlands help purify the environment; as someone once said, "they are the kidneys of our watersheds.'' .. DEMONSTRATION 2 How WE AFFECT WETLANDS FACILITATOR 'S NOTE : This demonstration shows how our activities on th e land affect wetlands -what we do at h ome and in bus ine ss and development -and how constructed wetlands m ay help in so m e areas. STEP 1: Prepare the Model 1. Wipe excess material s and w ate r off the model. Remove plu g and drain waterbody. Empty water drainage container: 2. Place the shopping mall (p a rkin g lot and building) on the op en field or prairie. Shopping Mall Key Wetlands A. shoreline marsh B. forested wetland C. riverine wetland by farm D. riverine wetland by highway E. marina development F. farm site wetland HOW WE AFFECT WETLANDS ... Shopping Mall Key 3. Place constructed wetlands I and J on the model. Wetlands I. constructed wetland below residential area J. constructed wetland by storm drain outfall 4. Place a grass buffer strip by the construction site as shown in the above diagram. 5. IMPORTANT NOTE: Slide the open container under the drain in the waterbody. 6. Put the plug in the waterbody's drain. (Do not force the plug.) 7. Make sure the two water bottles are filled with water. 8. To illustrate soil, sprinkle 1/2 tsp of cocoa on the co n struction site and on the banks above and along the shoreline. HOW WE AFFECT WETLANDS ... 9. To illustrate pesticides (red drink mix) and fertilizer (green drink mix), sprinkle 1/2 tsp of each on lawns in the residential area and on the golf course . 10. To illustrate oils and grease, squirt a few drops of the oil and sludge mixture on the parking lot, highways, roads and driveways . STEP 2: Check Your Audience's Awareness • What activities negatively affect wetlands? • What activities help protect wetlands? STEP 3: Perform Activities V ACTIVITY 1: DEVELOP A SHOPPING CENTER • Explain that we own the open field (or prairie) between the residential road and the golf course, and that we've developed a shopping center and parking lot on the rectangular area of the model. • Make it rain above and around the shopping center. • Discuss. The flat surface of the mall's parking lot increases the rate of runoff, and the concentration of buildings and human activity in the area increases the amount of sediments and other contaminants in the runoff. Also note that this runoff forms a pool of water at the base of the shopping center. HOW WE AFFECT WETLANDS ... Fett How can we handle this runoff and prevent the pool of water from becoming an unattractive and potentially dangerous place? • Place constructed wetland H on the mod e l above the sh opping ce nt er. • M ake landscape islands by placing sma ll pi eces of felt over sma ll moun d s of clay, and place them on the sid e edges of th e parking l ot. • Plant grass (u se a felt st rip) along the bottom edge of th e parking a rea. • Make it ra in . • D iscuss. Shopping Mall Key --,, Island Grassy Area Wetlands G. constructed wetland below mall H. constructed wetland above mall plec~ Clay / ~ mound C,_.,) • The constr ucted wetland above the mall filters an d redu ces runoff from the go lf co urse. • The landscaping changes in the shopping center help filte r and slow runoff from the mall itself. • The grassed parkin g l ot buffer also helps filter pollutants from the runoff. HOW WE AFFECT WETLANDS ... We still h ave a pool of wate r, sed im ents and pollutants below th e m a ll and more runoff than before -is there anythin g more we ca n do ? ~ Perhaps we can add some wetland characteristics to the pool of water. • Place constructed wetland G w here the pool of wate r i s. • Using some cle a r tubin g and clay, create a recessed storm drain in one of the landscape islands . Make sure the pipe drains through the grassy area 1 and th e co nstru cte d wetland. • Make it rain. • Discuss . Island Grassy Area We 've created a stormwater d ete ntion sys tem at the base of the mall, thus addin g the water-absorbing, sediment-trapping a nd filtering characteristics of a wetland. • The storm dra in help s divert so me of the runoff through the g ra ssy area to pretreat water going into the constructed wetland. • Such a constructed wetland will not have all the characteristics of a natural wetland, but perhaps some wildlife will find refuge here; the wetland will help protect the enviro nm ent, and it is more attractive than the untreated pool it replaces . • The constructed wetland above the mall reduces the amount of runoff to the mall area and also helps slow the rate of runoff from areas above the mall, thereby filtering out pollutants from the upland a rea. • To reduce the stormwater volume, we can reuse the stormwater from the detention system to irrigate the mall's green spaces. Careful planning must precede development choices. HOW WE AFFECT WETLANDS ... V ACTIVITY 2: CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS • Make it rain in the residential area and above the shoreline. • Discuss . See how these constructed wetlands help us better manage what we do on the land. • The constructed wetland (I) below the residential area serves as a filter for the pollutants (including trash) that result from our daily activities . This filter i ng occurs before our wastewater and runoff reach the larger wetland or the waterbody. • The constructed wetland (J) at the storm drain outfall is a filter -it helps trap pollutants before the water reaches the waterbody. SUGGESTION: Pour some used oil (a mixture of cocoa and water) down the storm drain to emphasize this point. In addition, if we construct these wetlands as green, open spaces, they may attract birds and discourage people from dumping trash in the area. • Construction Site • Make it rain over the construction site. See how the buffer strip helps hold the soil and filter out pollutants. This strip of grass -or in some cases, construction workers may use a black silt fence to help hold soil -helps protect the constructed wetland at the base of the residential area. Construction Site Key Always remember: Wetlands I. constructed wetland below residential area J. constructed wetland by storm drain outfall No matter where we are or what we do for a living, we must learn to manage the chemicals and other materials we put on the land! Wetlands are natural buffers, but don't expect them to do everything! They can't manage all the oils and grease, chemicals and fertilizers we put on the land. A simple rule for our activities is this: Use only what you need. HOW WE AFFECT WETLANDS ... V ACTIVITY 3 : FARMING A WETLAND • Develop the wetland by the farm into a corn field by removing w etland F . • Because corn is not a "wet crop," we'll need to dra i n the field - form drainage ditches out of clay to drain the field to the waterbody. • Place soil (cocoa), fertilizers and pesticides (drink mixes) on the field. • Make it rain . • Discuss. Notice how the corn field drains, carrying the soil, fertilizer and pesticides directly to t he waterbody. The practice of draining wetlands for conversion to agricultural use is not allowed today. However, it was done in the past, and many existing drainage ditches and drained wetlands are the result. Farm Site Key Wetla nds F. farm site wetland ' . ; ' > -.. -l .: "'? , ' . : -iJ I ~j . ' • What happens to the landscape when wetlands are drained? • To the wildlife in the area? • To water quality? V ACTIVITY 4: RESTORING A WETLAND Crops that are not naturally "wet crops," su c h as the corn we 've planted, may not grow well when farmed in a wetland area . Or perhaps you notice that runoff from this field is carrying too m any nutrients or too much topsoil to the waterbody. Or that wildlife is no longer abundant on your farm. What can you do to restore the wetland? • Restore the site by putting the wetland back in working condition. Place a berm where the corn field drains and put a wetland on the part of the field nearest the waterbody. • Use buffer strips between the wetland and the field to help take up any excess nutrients and pesticides. Farm Site Key Wetlands F. farm site wetland (showing berm, restored wetland, and buffer strips) ~~-Restored Wetland Buff er Strip .. HOW WE AFFECT WETLANDS ... • Pl ace soi l (cocoa) on the wetland. • Make it rain. • Discuss. Returning a wet l and as nearly as possible to its natural condition is called q restoration . Comp l ete restoration is difficu lt. In some cases, the best we -· can do will only partially restore wetl and va lu es and f un ct i ons. As we ease up on the conditions causing the alteration, t h e wetland's abi l ity to provide shelter for birds and other ani mals, o r to hold wate r on the floodplain wi ll i mprove. Wi ld l ife mqy ret urn , and a_ d i versity of p l ant life may begin to t h rive. What other wetland areas could we restore? _j . ' OPTIONAL ACTIVITIES The following activ iti es are optiona l ; you m ay or may not c hoose to u se them in your demonstrations. Shou l d you di scove r other opt ional act iviti es, p lease l et us know so we can sh are them with other enviroScape u se rs. V OPTIONAL ACTIVITY 1: STORMWATER CONTROL • Place wetland Kon model. • Place oil on the parking lot by the indu stria l plant. • Make it rc:iin. • Discuss. Factory Site Key Wetlands K. constructed wetland by factory OPTIONAL ACTIVITIES ... This wetland may have been constructed by the industrial plant as a stormwater detention area -similar to the stormwater systems we discussed at our shopping center. As you c an see, this constructed wetland holds the runoff temporarily and filters it before rel easing it to the stream. V OPTIONAL ACTIVITY 2: FILTERING • Mix up manure (using cocoa and water). • Place wetland C on the model. • Place manure in feedlot. • Make it rain by feedlot. • Discuss . Manure Storage Key ~ . Wetlands C. riverine wetland by farm ' . . ' OPTIONAL ACTIVITIES ... • Watch how the wetland filters some of the runoff from the feedlot. Some feedlots are experimenting with constructed wetlands as a way to help manage animal wastes. Note, however, that stormwater should always be pretreated before it is released into a wetland. Adding a buffer strip between the feedlot and the constructed wetland is one way to provide pretreatment. Using constructed wetlands to help manage animal waste requires technical expertise. CLEAN-UP ~ When the enviroscape sessions are completely finished: • Drain the lak e into the container beneath it. • Remove the contain e r and dispose of its contents in a sink. • Clean the co ntainer and plug. Let dry thoroughly. • Remove the felt strips from the model as soon as the demonstration is finished . Wash them separate l y with water; dry before storing. Felt strips should not be left to dry on the model as they may stick to the surface of the model. You can reuse the fe lt strips, but they will need to be replaced after a short time. • Remove the bridges , vehicles, buildi n gs and other sma ll components and wash separately with soap and water. Store carefully in container when dry. • Remove the trees from their trunks and let them dry before placing in container. • Repack all sma ll compo n ents and ingredients in the rectangular container. • Clean the model thoroughly. The unit can be washed with dish soap and water and rinsed directly under a faucet. Do not use any detergents or cleaners. • Let the enviroScape model dry comp letely. Then rep ack it and a l I its compone nts in the carry in g case. ~ Again, only use dish soap and water. .. A FINAL NOTE Wetland Connections to Groundwater The connections between groundwater and wetlands are constant and comp I icated because wetlands are common areas for groundwater recharge and discharge . When the flow of water is from the wetland to groundwater, the wetland may prevent some pollutants (e.g., soil, phosphorus, heavy metals) from entering groundwater -thus allowing the groundwater to recharge at a better quality. However, a wetland used to recharge groundwater can also contaminate groundwater (especially if the wetland is a degraded or constructed wetland). Contamination occurs when the recharge water carries excess solvents, gasoline, pesticides, nitrates or other contaminants. When shallow groundwater flows into a wetland, the process is called groundwater discharge. The groundwater may contain nutrients of use to wetland plants. Water that discharges to the wetland (or other surface areas), if not consumed, eventually flows to surface waterbodies or evaporates. NOTE: These connections are presented in greater detail in 9nviroScape's Groundwater Component. WETLANDS BACKGROUND Definitions and Classification of Wetlands Federal regulations* define wetlands as "areas w h ich are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under n ormal circumstances do support, a preva l ence of vegetation typi ca lly adapted for l ife in saturated soi l conditions." The U.S . Envi ronmenta l Protec tio n Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers use this definition to admin i ster Section 404 of the C l ean Wate r Act. The U.S. Department of Agriculture also uses this definition to make determinations about wetlands on agricultural lands . Anyone seeking to work in a wetland, even if t h e work is to restore or enhance the wet l a n d, must fo l low the prescribed regulatory and lega l procedures . A permit is usua ll y necessary to build on a wetland -w h et h er it be a shopping mall, a si ng l e fami l y residence, a boat dock or something much sma ll er. The U.S. Fish and W il dlife Service uses the followi ng definition: Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestr ia l and aquatic systems where the water table is u suall y at or near the surface or the land is covered by shall ow water. Wetlands must have one o r m ore of the fo ll owin g attrib utes: (7) at least periodica ll y, the land supports predo m inantly h ydrophytes, (2) the s ubstrate is predominantly undrained hydric soils, or (3) th e substrate is non so il organic matte r with water or covered by sha llow water at so me tim e during the g rowing season each year. The U .S. Fish a nd W il d l ife Service groups wetlands i nto five ecological systems: • Palustrine wetlands are dominated by trees, shr u bs and pers i stent erect-rooted p lants. • Lacustrine wetlands are assoc iated with lakes or reservoirs. • Riverine wetlands are character iz ed by fres h-flow i ng waters (river channels). • Estuarine wetlands are mixed fresh and salt wate r tidal wetlands, usually partia ll y enc losed by land. • Marine wetlands are exposed to the waves and currents of the ocean or sea. Some wet l and managers and scientists classify wetlands simp l y as inland or coasta l wetlands. • Inland wetlands -are either wet prai r ies, northern peat lands, southern deepwater swamps and other forested wetlands, freshwater and b rackish mars hes, or riparian ecosystems. About 80 percent of the wet lands i n the 48 sta tes are inland wet lands. • Coastal wetlands -are salt and freshwate r marshes and mangrove swamps. ' . GLOSSARY Se le c ted Types of Wetlands in the United States * • Po cosi n Wetl a nd s. Found along the lower Atlantic Coas ta l Pla in from Virginia to Florida , pocosi n wet l ands are evergreen scrub-s hrub bogs with hi ghly orga nic soi ls (mu cks or peat). Fetterbu sh , wax myrtle, pond pines, red bays a nd sweet bay s are co mm o n shrubs and sma ll trees. The Indi an (A lgo nquin) word pocos in means "swa mp on a hill." • Pra iri e Potho les . Found in North and South Dakota, Minnesota and Canada, prairi e potholes a re surface depress ion s formed by g laci a l act ivity, which now depend on runoff from precipitation a nd g roundwater for recharge. Tho se that depend on prec ipitation flu ctu ate in respo nse to wet and dry cycles. Those that a re fed by gro undwater have a more stab le water leve l . Prairie potholes are classified according to their wate r permanence and qua l ity and their vegetative cover. Catta i ls and bulrushes indicate water quality an d pe rm ane nce; various other marsh g ra sses may also appea r. Most potholes are fre shwate r, a lthough sa l ine and a l kaline types are common in the western and northern Great Plains . • Floodplain Wetlands . Found typically along major rivers a nd t heir tributaries, floodplain wetlands were formed by meandering river c hannels, scour action during flooding, an d blocked d e pressional areas . Vegetation in and around these wetlands can be bottom land forest or herbaceous veg etat ion. Some of the largest floodplain wetlands are found in the Midwest. "'Adapted from A. W Stone and A.J. Lindley Stone, Wetlands an d Ground Water in the United States (Concord, NH : The American Ground Water Tru st, 19 94). • Peatlands . Th ese wetland s co ntain so il s partially composed of d ecomposing plants. Th ey are found throughout th e United Stat es but th ey are parti c ularly dominant in north e rn Minneso ta. Bo gs and fens are typi ca l of p ea tl an ds . (Bo gs are watered by prec ipitation ; fen s receive some moisture from g roundwater.) Plants in peatlands a re ac id tolerant trees or shrub s (e.g., tamarack , red cedar, black spruce, sphagnum moss). Fens have more dive rs e p l ants includin g sedges, grasses and reed s. • Sand Hills . Found in South D akota a nd Nebraska, t he Sand Hi ll s (of which only 5 perc en t are wetlands) actually co ntai n a variety of wetland types: seaso na ll y flooded basin s, wet meadows, shallow and deep marshes , open lakes and freshwater ponds, and some artificial (constructed) wetlands. • Playa Lake Wetlands . These a lkaline flats include Death Valley and the Moj ave Des e rt . Other playas are found primarily in eas tern New Mex ico and northern Tex as. Pondweeds, arrowheads and cattails grow in the playas, which are ca l led lakes or playas or playa basins, though th ey are really wetlands. Seasonal bas i ns or temporary sha l low lakes, the playa wet lands occur and e ndure according to rainfall. There are some 20,000 to 30,000 p l ayas in the re gio n, but no permanent rivers or streams. • Bottomland Hardwoods. Th ese forested wetlands flank the rivers of the southeastern United States. They are riparian ecosystems t h at contai n flood tolerant species such as oak, gum, cypress, elm, ash, and the bald cypress, which has developed knees or aerial roots. These plants mu st withstand flooding for between 20 and 150 days a year. The bottomland hardwoods have been much altered to allow for human settlement, farming and transpo rtation. • Northeastern Swamps and Bogs . Swamps occur in low, poorly draining areas and are dominated by woody vegetatio n, such as hemlock, white pine, red maple, and larch . Bogs are dominated by spongy mats of sphagnum moss, with some evergreens, heath species (leatherleaf) and bog sedges. Peat bogs are the most common . • Cypress Dome Wetlands. These deepwater swamps or hardwood forested wetl ands in southern Georgia and Florida GLOSSARY ... have been very long in forming. Named from the shape of the format ion -the oldest and tallest trees grow in the center -the cyp res s domes g row in depressions that may have formed from older wet lands . • Permafrost /Tundra Wetlands . Alaska is home to 75 percent of a ll wetlands in the United States, and Alaskan wetlands are also the leas t disturbed or altered by human act ivity. Permanent frost (permafrost) conditions are conti nuous in the north, discontinuous in the sout h . The organic accumulations in Alaskan wetlands are called "muskegs" -a term for peatlands that do not receive mu ch water from groundwate(·or streamflow. Popular General Terms Used to Describe Wetlands • bog: a spongy wetland, usually matted with sphagnum moss; characterized by nutrient-poor, acidic soi l s and little or no inflow and outflow capacity • bottomland: lowl a nd s near streams and rivers (floodplains) • marsh: a frequently or always inundated wetland containing largely herbaceous vegetation: reeds, rus hes and cattails • muskeg: la rge Canadian or Alaskan peatland or bog • peatland: a generic term for a wetland accumulating decayed plant matter • playa: marshlike pond in southwestern United States • pothole: marshlike shallow pond in North and South Dakota and Canada • slough: a swamp o r shallow lake system in northern and midwestern states; a sha llow marsh in southeastern states; often seen as an area of dead water containing woody vegetat ion: trees and shrubs. • swamp: wetlands dominated by trees and shrubs; in Europe a forested fen or reed-dominated wetland • vernal pool : sha ll ow, intermitte ntly flooded wet meadow, generally dry in summer and fa ll • wet meadow: grassland with waterlogged so ils, but without standing water most of the year • wet prairie: similar to a marsh but intermediate to a marsh and wet meadow I • .J , 1 l . . Other Terms Used in enviroScape Demonstrations • benefits: the advantages or good that results from something or some activity •best management practices (BMPs): methods or techniques that landowners, farmers, householders and othe rs can use to control pol lution from nonpoint sources • biodiversity: the variety and interactions of multiple species and a marker of ecosystem health • clarifier tanks: large water-holding tanks used during wastewater treatment; water remains in the tank until impurities settle out •emergent wetlands: dominated by grasses, herbaceous, nonwoody vegetation, these wetlands may be flooded during most of the growing season • functions: activities or processes that fulfill some purpose; here, the natural processes of wetlands • nonpoint source pollution (NPS): pollution -largely rainfall or snowmelt contaminated from many sources -that does not come from a pipe; runoff contaminated by sed im ents, dissolved nutrients, organic wastes, heavy metals, or septic tank effluent • percolation: the passage of a solvent through a permeable substance, for example, as water oozes or trickles through soil or gradually moves down through the soil into the groundwater aquifer • permeable: having pores or openings that permit liquids or gases to pass through; for example, sa nd and clay are permeable but g l ass is not; paving materials are usually not permeable • publicly owned treatment works (POTWs): plants designed to receive and treat wastewater before it is discharged into streams or other receiving waters • stewardship: the activity of caring for and managing another's resources or financial affairs; in eco logical terms, a steward is one who cares for the land and water and serves them, aware of their usefulness and values • valdose zone: unsaturated zone • value: the usefulness or good that a person or thing fulfills; an expression of appreciati on or esteem • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS P ROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 : Our natio n 's wetlands have been po ll uted. filled in , paved over a nd largely ig nored • s ince European se tt lers first a rrived in North A m e rica . Swamps , bogs and mars h es • • were see n as waste lands th at were best aYoided or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beg inning to recogni ze that wet lands are not wa stelands ; they are vital • • breedi ng habitat for wild l ife. water filtration and storage areas. They also are important : to the recreatio nal , com m ercial food harvest, as we ll as the tourism a nd timbe r indus- IN A GREEN • tries . T heir natura l funct io ns, such as storing flood waters and producin g seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to peop le. But we contin u e to de stroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and developme nt. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wet lands h ave been lost . • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS, : A wetla nd is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aq u at ic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamp s, marshes and bogs are types of wetlan ds commonly found in the Un ited PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some we tl ands are con stant ly wet and some are wet only du r ing ce1ta in times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitio ns of wetla nds , some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, w hi ch affect wetland regulat io ns and wet land protection. Mos t definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) pre se nce of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soi ls fom1ed un d er waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrop hytes) that has adapted to livi ng in wet condit ions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficu lt to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : Duri ng colonia l times, wetlands were regarde d as d a rk , di s mal swampy areas that : enco uraged disease, obstructed ove rl and trave l and re s tricted food production . -Theodore • Wet lands were viewed as obstac les to develop m ent -places that mu st be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : soc iety beca me aware of t he wea lth of be nefits wetlands offer, views a bout wetlands • cha nged considerably. Peop le began to reali ze th at wetlands have both ecological and • • Fo r more information, contact: Save Our Streams • • • • • • • • • • • 707 Conservation Lane • • Gaithersburg, MD • 20878-2983 • economic impo1tance . Conserving wetlands offers ma ny benefits, including: Wildlife Habitat -Wet la nds provide shelter, food , and spawning and nesting sites for ma ny sp ec ies of b irds , fis h, mam m a ls , rept il es and inve 1tebrates. A lthou g h wetlands make up on ly about 5 percent of land in the United States, the y s upport about 190 am ph ibian species and one-third of all bird s pecies in the country . Almost 43 percen t of the federa ll y listed threatened and endangered anima l species a re in some way dependent on wet lands fo r surviva l. Phone: (301 ) 548-0150 • 1800> BUG -IWLA : Floodwate r S torage -Dependi n g o n the ar ea's topograp h y and location in the water- E-mail : sos @iwla.org • shed, wetlands ca n act as wate r storage areas . Wetlands located a long a river are espe- Website: www.iwla .org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Am1y Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type, location , so ils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coast lin es and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action . In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective banier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw10ff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments , accumu late nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim - ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the Unjted States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Ang lers spent $37 .8 bi lli on on equipment, li censes, travel and lodging in the same year. Recrea tion -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , s uch as natural wetlands, stil l exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpen sive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the speciali zed habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent s ubjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACK ET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • O u r n a ti o n 's wetl a nd s have b een po ll uted. fil le d in, p ave d over and la rge ly ig n ored • • si nce E u ro pea n se tt le rs fir st arrive d in North A m erica. Swamps, bogs a n d mars hes • • we re see n as waste la nd s th a t were b est avo id e d o r fi ll e d to c rea te ·'productive land." • • To d ay, w e a re b eg inning t o recog ni ze th at we t la nds are n o t wastelands ; they a re vital : b reedin g ha bita t for wi ldlife, water filt ra t io n a nd s torage a reas. They also a re impo rt a nt : to th e recreati o na l, comm e rc ial foo d ha r ves t, as we ll as th e tou ri sm and ti mb e r ind u s- 1 MA GREEM • t r ies. Th e ir n a tu ra l fun ctio n s, suc h as s torin g fl ood waters a nd produc in g seafood, are PLA(E LAM<ED • THROUGH : im p o rta nt to p eo p le. But we cont inu e to destro y o ur wetl a nd s at a n a laimi ng rate to WITH AMBER : mak e way fo r road s a nd d evelop me nt. Since th e m id-l 800 s more than ha lf th e na tio n 's AMD GOLD • o ri g in a l wetl a n ds h ave b een lost. • AMD BLUE -• A PLA<E OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAMD : WEEDS , • A wetla n d is a n ecosyst e m tha t h as both te rres tri a l an d a qu a ti c c h aract e r is t ics. AMD ROSES : Swamp s, m ars hes a nd bogs a re t y p es of wetl ands commonly fo und in th e Unite d PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Som e wetl a nds are c on sta nt ly w et , a nd som e a re w e t o nl y durin g ce 11a in tim es AND RANKS OF : of th e yea r. T h ere a re man y di ffe re nt d efi niti o n s of we tland s, som e scien tifi c a nd so m e LUSH YOUNG • lega l, w h ic h a ffec t we tl a nd regu la tion s a nd wet la nd p ro te cti o n . Mos t defi niti o n s • REEDS • includ e three m a in c h a ra c te ri stics of we tl a nd s: I) presen ce o f surface wa ter o r water i n AND GRASSES : th e roo t z o ne; 2) h y dr ic s oil s (so il s fo 1m e d und e r waterlogged condit io n s); an d 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : e ta t ion (h y d ro phy tes) tha t h as a d a pte d to l iv in g in we t conditi ons. Cou n t less va ri ation s WITH DRAWN : of th ese c haracte ri sti cs o ft e n m ake it d iffic ult to d e termin e w h e ther o r no t a partic u lar FROM GRAVEN • a rea is a wetl a nd. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • • • • • • During colonia l tim es, wetl a nd s were regard e d as dark, di s m a l swamp y a reas th at e n co u rage d di sease, o b s tru cted ove rl a nd trave l a nd res tri c te d food p roduct io n . Wet la nd s were v iewed as o b s tac les to d eve lo pm e nt -pl aces th at mu st b e d ra in ed. As soc ie ty b eca m e aware o f th e wea lt h of b enefi ts w e tl an d s o ffe r, v iews abo u t wetl a n ds changed con s id era bl y. P eo ple b ega n to realize tha t wetl a nd s h ave both eco log ica l a nd eco no mi c imp o 1ta n ce. Con serving w e tl a n ds o ffe rs m a ny be nefits, in c lu di ng : • • Wi ld l ife H abita t -We tl a nd s p rovi d e s h e lte r, fo o d , a nd s p awnin g a nd nes tin g s it es for : ma ny s pecies of bi rd s, fi s h , m a mm a ls, rept iles a nd in ve rte b ra tes . A lth ough we tl a n ds For more information, : make up o nl y a bout 5 pe rce nt of la nd in th e Unite d States , th ey s upp ort a b o ut 190 co ntact: save our Stream s : am phibi a n s pec ies and o ne-third o f a ll bi rd s pec ies in th e co unt ry. A lm ost 43 pe rcent 707 Con servation La ne • of t he fe d era ll y li sted thre ate n e d a nd e nd anger e d a n ima l s pe ci es a re in so m e way • Gaith e rsburg, MD • d epend e nt o n we tl a nd s for s urv iva l. 20878-2983 • Pho ne : (301 ) S48-0 1 SO • (800) BUG -IWLA • F lood wate r S t orage -D e p e ndin g o n tl}e a rea's top ogra phy a nd loca ti o n in th e wa ter-• E-ma il: sos @iwla .o rg • sh e d , we tl ands can a c t as wate r sto ra ge a reas. Wetl a nd s loca te d a lo n g a rive r a re es pe- Web sit e: www.i w la .org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S . Anny Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location, soil s and relationship to the wat e r table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetland s s hi e ld coastlines and dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. Jn 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the de veloped coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Loui s iana coa st with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands al so reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic B e nefits -Fish , shellfish , cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod - ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfi sh in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Cornn1ercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, license s , travel and lodging in the same year. Rec reation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endle s s opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , such a s natural wetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetland s firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • IN A GREEN • PLA(E LAN(ED • • THROUGH • • WITH AMBER • AND GOLD : AND BLUE -• SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation's wetlands have been po ll uted , fi ll ed in , paved over and large ly ig nored since European settlers first anived in North America. Swamps. bogs and mars h es were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create ·'product ive land .'' Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wetlands are not wastelands ; th ey are vital breeding habitat for wi ldlife , water fi ltration a n d storage areas . They also are important to the recreational , commercial food h arvest, as well as the touri sm and timber indus- tries. Their natura l functions , such as storing fl ood waters and producin g seafood, are important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alaiming rate to make way for roads and developmen t. Since th e mid-l 800s more th a n half the nation's original wetlands have been lost. A PLA<E OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many differe n t definitio ns of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland regulations and wetland protect ion. Most d efinit ions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of s urface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions): and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease , obstru cted overland trave l and re s tricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that mu s t be drai n ed. As Go odridge Roberts : soc iety became aware of the wea Ith of benefits wetlands offer, views about wetlands • • changed considerably. People began to reali ze th at wetlands ha ve both ecological and • • economic imp01tance. Conserving wetlands offe rs many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wet lands provide s h e lter, food , and spawning and nesting sites for : many species of bi rds , fis h , mam m a ls, repti les a nd invertebrates. A lthou g h wetlands For more information, : make u p only abo u t 5 percent of la nd in the Un ited States, t hey support about 190 contact : Save our Streams : amphibia n species a nd o ne-th ird of a ll bird spec ies in the country. Almost 43 percent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threaten ed and endangered animal species are in some way • Gaither sburg, MD • dependen t on wetla nds for s u rvival. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • 18001 BUG -I WLA : Floodwa ter Storage -Depe nding on th e area's topography and location in the water- E-mail: sos @iwla.o r g • shed, wetlands ca n act as water storage areas. Wetlands located along a river are espe- Websi te: www.iw l a .org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U .S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have ca used $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type, location, soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Co ntro l -Coastal wetlands shield coast lin es and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 199 2, Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Loui s iana coast with the same force, it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana 's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi - ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, she llfi sh, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and she llfi sh in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and -contribute s $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on tra vel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for vis ual enjoyment. They provide end less opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, still ex ist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor la boratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The comp lexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS P ROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation 's wetlands have bee n polluted , filled in , paved over a nd large ly ignored si nc e European se ttlers fir st arr ive d in orth America. Swamps, bogs and mars h es were seen as wastelands that were bes t avo ided or fill ed to create "productive la nd ." • • • • • Today, we are beginning to rec ogni ze that •vetland s are not wa ste land s; they are vital : breeding habitat for wildlife. water filt rat ion a nd storage areas. They also are important : to the recreational , commercial food harves t. as well as the tourism and timber indu s- IN A GREEN • trie s . Their natural functions . s uc h as s to rin g flood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people . But we concinue to destroy our wetland s at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • orig in a l wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : ~WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics . AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetla nd s commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constant ly wet, and some are wet only durin g ce11ain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitions of wetland s, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland re g ulation s a nd wetland protection. Mos t definitions • REEDS • include three main characteri stic s of w e tl a nd s: I) pre sence of surface wa ter or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric soils (so ils fom1 e d under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adap ted to living in wet conditions . Countless variations WITHDRAWN • of these characteristics often m a ke it difficult to determine wheth er or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS. • • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • • • • • • • • During co lonia l times, wetland s were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that encouraged dis ease, obstructed ove rl and trave l and re stricted food production . Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to d eve lopment -places th at must be drained . As soc iety became aware of the wea Ith of be nefits wetlands offer, views a bout wetland s changed considerably. People bega n to realize that wetlands have both ecologica l and eco nomi c impo11ance . Conserving wetl a nd s offe rs many benefits, including: Wild life Habitat -Wetland s provide shelter, food , and s pawning and ne sting sites for Fo r more information, contact: Save Our Streams • • • • : many species of bird s , fish , mammals. reptil es and inv e rtebrate s. A lth ough wetlands make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States , they support about 190 amphibian species and one-third of all bird s pecies in the country. Almost 43 percent of the federally li sted threatened and endangered animal species are in some way dependent on wetlands for s urvival. 707 Conservation Lane • Gaithersburg, MD : 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • (800) BUG-IWLA : Floodwa te r Storage -Depending on the area's topograph y and location in the water- E-mail: sos @iwla.org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetlands located along a river are espe- Website : www.iwla .org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. T his depends upon the season a nd amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type, location , soils and relationship to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coast lines and dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force, it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands . More than 95 per- cent of the conunercially harvested fish and she ll fish in the United States a re wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides near ly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Cornmercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 mi ll ion on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just know ing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. Augu st 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our nation 's wetlands have been polluted , fi ll ed in , paved over and large ly ig nored • • since European settlers fir st arrive d in orth America. Swamps, bogs an d m a rshes • • were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to crea te ·'productive land." • • Today, we are beginning to rec ogni z e that wetlands are not wa steland s; they are vital • • breeding habitat for wild l ife . water filtration and storage areas. Th ey a lso are important : to the recreational , commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries. Their natura l functions , suc h as storing fl ood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to people . But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-l 800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • origina l wetlands have been lo st. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constan t ly wet, and some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definition s of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal , which affect wetland regulations and wetland protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) pre se nce of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone: 2) hydric soils (soi l s fom1ed under waterlogged conditions): and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITHDRAWN • of the se characteristics often make it difficult to detennine whe th er or not a particul a r FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : During co lonia l times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas t hat : enco ura ged disea se, obstructed overland trave l a n d re s tricted food production . -Theodore • Wet lands were viewed as obstacles to deve lopment -places that mu st be drained . As Goodridge Roberts : society became aware of t he wealth of benefits wetl ands offer, views abo ut wetlands • • changed con s iderably. People began to rea li ze that wetlands have both ecological and • • economic importance. Conserving wet lands offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wet la n ds pro v ide s helter, foo d , and spaw n in g and nesting s ite s for : many s pecie s of birds , fish , mamma ls , reptil es a n d invertebrate s. A lthough wetlands For more info rmation, : make up only about 5 percent of la nd in the United States, they support about 190 contact: Save our Streams : amphibian species and one-th ird of a ll bird species in the country. Almost 43 percent 101 Conservation Lane • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in so me way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for s urviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • 18001 BUG -IWLA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water-• E-ma i l : sos@iwla.o r g • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wet lands located along a river are espe- Website: www.iwla.org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S . Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as we ll as the wetland 's type , location , soils and rela t ion s hip to th e water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shj e ld coastline s and dissipate storm energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Loui s iana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana 's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective bani er. Wetlands al so reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and ag ricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutri ents, transfo1m a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands . More than 95 per- cent of the commercia lly harvested fish and shellfi sh in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their Jives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful place s, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experie ncing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystem s makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Ou r nation 's wetlands have bee n polluted , filled in , paved over a nd larg e ly ignored • • s ince Europea n settlers fir st arrived in North A m erica . Swa m ps, bogs and marshes • • we re see n as w aste land s that were best avo id ed or filled to create ·'productive la nd ." • • Today, we are beginning to re cogn ize th at wet lands are no t wa stelands ; th ey a re vi ta l • • • • breeding hab it at for wildlife , water filt ra ti on and storage area s . They al so a re important to the recreatio nal , commercial food harves t , as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries . Their natural fun ction s, s uc h as s torin g flood wa ters and producing seafoo d , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : im portant to people . But we continue to destroy our we tland s at a n alaimi ng rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-l 800s more t han ha! f the nation 's AND GOLD • o riginal wetlands have been lo st . • AND BLUE -• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Sv./amps , marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in th e Un it ed PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some a re wet only durin g ce11ain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different d efinitions of wetlands , so m e sc ie ntific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland re g ul ation s and wet land protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface wa ter or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric soils (soils fo1med under waterlogged co nditi ons ): a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has a dapted to living in wet conditions. Countl ess variatio ns WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it diffi c ult to d eterm ine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : a rea is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark, di s mal swamp y a reas th at enco ura ged di sease, obstructed overland trave l a nd restricted food produ ct ion . Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to d evelo pm ent -places th at mu st be drained. A s • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : soc iety beca m e aware of the wealth of be nefi ts w e tl a nds offer, views abo ut wetland s For more information, contact: Save Our Streams 7 0 7 Con servation La ne Gaithersburg, MD 20878-2983 • • changed considerably. People began to rea li z e that wet la nd s h ave both ecologica l and • • economic impo1iance . Con serving wetlands offe rs many be nefits , including: • • • • Wild life Habita t -Wetl a nd s pro vid e s he lt er, food, a nd s pawnin g a nd nes tin g s it es for : many s pecies o f birds, fi s h , m am ma ls , repti les a nd invertebrates. A lth o ug h wet land s : make up only about 5 pe rcent of la nd in the Un ited States , th ey s upp ort a bout 190 : amphibian species and one-third of a ll bi rd s pec ies in the country. Almost 43 percent • of the federally li sted threatened and endangered anima l s pecies a re in so me way • • dependent on we tl ands for s urviva l. • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • (8 ooJ BUG -I WLA : Floodwater Storage -Depending on th e a rea's top ogra phy and lo cation in the water- E-mail : so s@ iwla .org • shed , wetlands can act as water storage a reas. Wetl and s located along a river are es pe- Webs ite: www.iwl a.o rg : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Th.is depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as we.II as the wetland 's type , location , soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines a nd dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers aga in st wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the deve loped coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nut1ients, transfo1m a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic B e nefits -Fish , shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and she llfi sh in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contribute s $ 152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licen ses, travel and lodging in the sa me year. Recrea tion -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of a ll adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , such as natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experien cing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 Aug u st 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation's wetlands have be e n polluted , filled in, paved over and large ly ignored si nce E uropean settlers fir st anived in North America. Swamps , bogs and marshe s • were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create "productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to re cog ni ze that wetlands are not wa steland s; th ey are vital • • breeding habitat for wildlife , water filtration and storage areas. They also are important : to the recreational , commercial food harves t, as well as the tourism and timber indu s- IN A GREEN • tries. Their natural function s, such as s toring flood waters and producin g seafood, are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lo st . • AND BLUE -• A PLACE QF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , • AND ROSES : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly fow1d in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wet lands are constant ly wet, and some are wet only during certain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitions of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland re g ulation s and wetland protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: l) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often m a ke it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : During colonial time s, wetland s were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : encouraged di seas e , obstructed overland tra ve l and restricted food production . -Theodore • We tlands were viewed as obsta c les to de ve lopment -places that must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : • soc iety became aware of t he w ea lth of be ne fits wetlands offer, views about wetland s • changed considerably. People began to reali ze that wetlands have both ecological and • • eco nomic impo1tance. Conserving wetlands offers m a ny benefits, including: • • • • Wild l ife Habitat -Wet lands pro v ide shelter, food, and spawning and ne sting sites for : man y species of birds , fish , mamma ls, reptil es and invertebrates. Although wet lands For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States , they support about 190 contact : save our Streams : amphibian species and one-third of a ll bird species in the country. Almost 43 percent 707 Conservati on La ne • of the federally listed th reatened and endangered animal species are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for s urviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • (8 oo) BUG -I WLA • Floodwater Storage -Depending o n the area's topography and location in the water- E-mai l : sos@iwla.o rg Web si te: www.iw l a .org • • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas . Wet lands located along a river are espe-• • cially valued for th eir capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of prec ipitation, as well as the wetland 's type, location , soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers aga inst wind, rain and wave action. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force, it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective banier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricu ltural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumu late nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and she ll fish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 bi ll ion annually to the. economy. Commercia l h unting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each yea_r. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , trave l and lodging in the same year. Rec reation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of a ll adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation·s wet la nd s h ave been polluted , filled in , paved over and large ly ignored since E uro pea n settlers first aiTive d in North A m erica. Swamps, bogs an d marshe s were seen as wastelands that were best avoide d or filled to create ·'productive land."' • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wetlan ds are not wa ste land s; they are vital : breed in g h abitat for wildlife , water filt rati on a nd storage areas . They also are important : to the recreational , com m ercial food harves t, as well as the touri s m and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries. T he ir natural functions , such as s to rin g flood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarmi n g rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wetlands h ave been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosyste m that has both terrestrial and aqua ti c characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamp s , marshes a nd bogs are types of wetlands conunonly found in the Un it ed PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands a re constantly wet, a nd some are wet on ly during ce1ta in times AND RANKS OF: of the year. There are man y different definitions of wetla nd s, some scientifi c a nd some LUSH YOUNG • legal , w hi ch affect wetlan d regulations and wetland protection . Most definit io n s • REEDS • incl ud e three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) h y dri c so il s (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydroph y tes) that h as adapted to living in wet conditi ons. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether o r not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • • • During colon ia l times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that encouraged disease, obstructed overl and trave l a nd restricted food production . Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained . As soc iety became aware of the wealth of b e nefits wetland s offer, views about wetlands cha nged consid erably. People began to reali ze that wetla nd s have both ecologica l and • econo mi c impo1tance. Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wi/d![fe Habitat -Wetlands provide s h e lt er, food, and s pawnin g a nd nesting s it es for : many species of birds , fish , mammals , reptiles and invertebrates. Although wet lands For more information, • make up only about 5 percent of la nd in the Un it ed States , they support about 190 co ntact : • Save our Streams : amphibian species and one-third of all bird spec ies in the country. Almost 43 percent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatened an d endangered anima l spec ies are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD 20878-2983 • dependent on wetlands for s urviva l. • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • 18001 BUG-IWLA : Floodwa ter S torage -Depending on th e area's topograph y a nd location in the water- E-mail: sos@iwla .org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetl ands loc ated along a river are espe- Website: www.iwla.org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charle s River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as we] I as the wetland 's type , location, soils and rela t ionship to the wate r table . Ero s ion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastline s and dissipate stom1 en e rgy. They act as buffers again st wind , rain and wave action . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana 's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective ban-ier. Wetlands also reduce cha1mel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic B enefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands . More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fi sh and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commerci a l fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on e quipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for re search projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our nation's wetlands have been polluted, fil led in, paved over and largely ignored • • since European settlers first aITived in North America. Swamps, bogs and marshes • • were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create ·'productive land." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wetlands are not wastelands; they are vital • • breeding habitat for wildlife , water fi ltration and storage areas. They also are important : to the recreational , com m ercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries. Their natura l functions, such as storing fl ood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people . But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since th e mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • origina l wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE-• A 'LACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, • A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aq u atic characteristics. AND ROSES : Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands conunonly fow1d in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wet lands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitions of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland regulations and wetland protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wet land. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : During colonia l times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to develop m ent -places that must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : society became aware of t he wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wet land s • • changed considerably. People began to realize that wetlands have both ecologica l and • • economic impo1tance . Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wet lands provide she lter, food, and spawning and nesting sites for : many species of birds, fish, mamma ls , reptiles and invertebrates. A lthough wetlands For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the Un ited States , they support about 190 contact: Save Our Streams : amphibian species and o ne-th ird of a ll bird species in the country. A lmost 43 percent 707 Conservat ion Lane • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on wet lands for surviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0 1 SO • 18001 BUG -I WLA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water-• E-mail : sos @iwla.org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wet lands located along a river are espe- Website : www.i wla .o rg : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Th .is depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type , location, soils and rela t ionship to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers again st wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective banier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and ag1icultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heafy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Bene.fits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands . More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and cEmtributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 mi ll ion on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for vi s ual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of a ll adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. Augu st 1999 Aug ust 1 999 • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation's wetlands have been polluted. filled in , paved over and largely ig nored • s ince European settlers first atTived in North America . Swamps, bo gs and mars he s • • were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wetlands are not wastelands ; they are vital : breeding habitat for wildlife, water filtration and storage areas. They also are important : to the recreational , commercial food harvest , as well as the tourism and timber indus- p::~ ~=~~~D : tries. Their natural functions, such as storing flood waters and producing seafood, are TH ROUGH : important to people . But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD : original wetlands have been lost. AND BLUE -• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND?_. WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitio ns of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland regulations and wetland protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: I) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : During colonial times, wetlands were regarded a s dark, dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production . -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : For more information, contact: Sav e Our Stream s 707 Co nservation La ne Gaithersburg, MD 20878-2983 • so ciety became aware of the wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wetlands • changed considerably. People began to realize that wetlands have both ecological and • • economic impo1tance. Conserving wetland s offers many benefits , including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wet lands provide shelter, food , and spawning and ne s ting sites for : many species of birds , fish , mammals , reptil es and invertebrates. Although wetlands : make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States they support about 190 : amphibian species and one-th ird of all bird species in the country. Almost 43 percent • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • • dependent on wet lands for survival. • Phone: (3 01) 548-0 1 SO • 18001 BUG -I WLA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water-• E-ma il : sos @iwla .org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetlands located along a river are espe- We bs ite : www.iwla.org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S . Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands a long the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type, location , soils and relationship to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands srueld coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force, it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective bani er. Wetlands also reduce cha1mel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish, bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , such as natural wetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our nation 's wetlands have been po ll uted , filled in, paved over and la rge ly ig nored • • since European settlers first arrived in North America. Swamps, bogs and mars he s • • were seen as wastelands that vvere be st avoided or filled to create ·'productive land." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wetlands a re not wastelands; they are vital • • breeding habitat for wild l ife , water filtration and s torage areas. They also are important : to the recrea tional, commercial food harvest, as well as the touri sm and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries. Their natural functions, such as storing flood waters and producin g seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-l 800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAM • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constant ly wet, and some are wet only during certain times AND RANKS OF: of the year. There are many different definitio n s of wetlands. some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal , which affect wetland re g ulations and wetland protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: I) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficu lt to det ermine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HE ROM • • STANDS. • During colonial times , wet lands were regarded as dark. dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and re s tricted food production . -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to de ve lopment -places that must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : soc iety became aware of the wealth of benefits wetl ands offer, v iews about wetlands • • changed considerably. People began to reali ze that wetlands have both ecological and • • economic impo11ance . Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands provide shelter, food, and spaw nin g and nesting sites for : many species of bird s, fish, mammals , reptil es and invertebrate s. A lthough wetlands For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the Un ited States, they su pport about 190 contact: Save Our Stre a m s : amphibian species and one-third of all bird s pecies in the country. Almost 43 percent 707 Conse rvation Lane • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in so me way • Ga ithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for survival. 20878-2983 • Phon e: (30 1) 548-01 SO • t8 oo) BUG -I W LA : Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water- E-mai l: sos @iwla .org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetlands located along a river are espe- Web si te: www.iwla.org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S . Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location , soils and rela t ionship to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wet lands shi e ld coastlin es and dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrie r. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water-.and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumu late nutrie nts, transfotm a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other cornn1ercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commerci a lly harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 mi ll ion on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . Augu st 19 99 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our nation 's wetlands have been polluted , fi ll ed in, paved over and large ly ignored • • si nce E uropean settlers fir s t anived in North America. Svvamps, bo gs and mars h es • • were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze th a t wetlands are not wastelands ; th ey are vital : breeding habitat for wild l ife , water filtration and storage areas. They also are important : to the recreational, commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • PLACE LANCED : THROUGH • • WITH AMBER • tries. Their natural function s, such as storing flood waters and producin g seafood , are important to people . But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an ala1ming rate to make way for roads and development. Since the mid-I 800s more th a n half the nation's AND GOLD : original wetlands have been lost. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF . : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wet lands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during certain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definition s of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland regulations and wet land protection. Most d efi nitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: I) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITHDRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • • STANDS . • During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production . -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : society became aware of the wealth of benefits wetl a nds offer, views about wetlands • • changed considerably. People began to re a li ze that wetlands have both eco logical an d • • economic impo11ance . Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands provide shelter, food , and spawning and nes ting sites for : many spec ies of birds , fish , mammals , reptiles and invertebrate s. Although wetlands For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States, they s upport about 190 contact: s ave our Strea m s : amphibian species and one-third of all bird species in the country. Almost 43 percen t 101 Conservation La ne • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • Ga ithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for survival. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 50 • (8 oo) BUG -IWLA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water-• E-mail: so s@ iwla.org • shed, wet lands can act as water storage areas. Wetlands located along a river are espe- We b site: www.i w la.o r g : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U.S. Army C o rps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depe nds upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type , location, soils and relation s hip to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate storn1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Loui s iana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baITier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs duri ng floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte ring polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such a s pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Co nstructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fi s h and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licen ses, travel and lodging in the same year. Rec reation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hw1ting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife . Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , s uch as natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali - ty or wildlife. August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our nation's wetlands h ave be en polluted , filled in, paved over and large ly ig nored • • si nce E urop ean se ttl ers fir s t arrived in North America. Swamps, bogs a nd m a rs hes • • we re see n as wastela nd s that were be st avoide d or fi lied to create ·'prod ucti ve land ." • • Today, we a re be g inning to recog ni ze that wet la nds are not wastelands ; th ey are vital : breed in g habitat for wi ldli fe , water filtr ation a nd storage areas. T hey also are impo11ant : to the recrea tional, comm ercial food h arvest, as we ll as th e touri sm and timber indus- IN A GREEN • PLACE LANCED : THROUGH • • WITH AMBER • tries. Th e ir na tural function s , s uch as s tori n g flo od wa ters a nd producing seafood , a re important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at a n a la1m in g rate to make way for roads and development. Since the mid-l 800 s more than half th e nation's AND GOLD • orig in a l wetlands h ave been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WE"(LAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetla nd i s an ecosystem that has both terrestri al and aquatic characteristics . AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are ty pes of wet land s commonl y found in the Uni ted PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are con sta ntly wet, and some are wet only durin g ce11ain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitio ns of wet la nd s, so me sc ientific a nd some LUSH YOUNG • leg a l, w hi ch affect wet la nd regul a tion s and wetland protection. Mo s t definitio ns • REEDS • incl ud e three main characteristics of wetlands: l) presence of surface wa ter or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soi ls (soils fom1e d und er waterlogged co nditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrop hytes) that h as adapted to living in wet condition s. Countless variations WITH DRAWN : of the se charac teristi cs often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN • area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • During colonia l times, wetlands were regarded as dark. dismal swampy areas that encouraged di sease, obstru cted overl and trave l a nd re s tricted food produ ction . Wetla nd s were viewed as obstacles to d eve lopm e nt -plac es th at mu st be drained. As soc iety became aware of the wea lth of benefi ts wetl ands offer, views about wet lands • changed considerab ly. People bega n to rea li ze that wetla nd s h ave both ecologica l an d • • econo mi c impo11 ance. Conserving wetlands offe rs many benefits, includin g : • • • • Wi ldl[/e Habitat -Wet la nd s pro v ide s h e lt er, foo d , and s pawnin g an d nesting s it es for : many s pecie s of bird s , fish , mammals , rep til es a nd invertebrates . A lth ough wet lands For more informa tion, : m ake up only a bout 5 percent of land in the Un it ed States, the y s upport about 190 co ntact: save our Streams : amphibia n s pec ies and one-third of all bird s pecie s in the co unt ry. Almost 43 perc e nt 101 Conservation Lane • of the fe d erally li s ted threatened a nd e nd ange red a nima l species are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for s urviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • 18001 BUG-IWLA • Floodwater Storage -D ependin g o n th e area's topograph y and loc atio n in the water-• E-mail: sos @iwla .org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas . Wet lands lo cated along a river are espe- Website: www.iwla.org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S . Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation, as well as the we t land 's type , location , soils and relationship to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shjeld coastlines and dissipate storm energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Loui s iana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective banier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw1off from city streets, building and agricultural land s . They trap sedi- ments, accumu late nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their l ives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wet lands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Rec reation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , such as natural wetlands, s till exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 SAVE OUR STREAMS P ROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our n ation's w e t lands h ave bee n pol luted. fi ll ed in , paved over a nd large ly ig nored • • s ince E urop ea n settl e rs fir st arrive d in North America . Swamps, bo gs an d marsh es • • were seen as wastelands that were bes t avoide d or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are be g inning to recogni z e that wet la nd s a re not wastelands ; they are vita l : breeding habitat for wildlife, water filtrati o n and s torage areas. They also are important : to the recrea tional. commercial food harvest, as well as the touri sm a nd timbe r indu s- IN A GREEN • tries . Their natura l function s, suc h as storin g fl ood waters and producin g seafood, are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to people . But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alatming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid -l 800s more th a n half th e nation 's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE -• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamp s , marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wet lands are constantly wet, and some are wet only durin g ce1tain times AND RANKS OF: of the year. There are many different definitio n s of wetlands , some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affect wetland reg ulat ions and wet la nd protection . Most definitio ns • REEDS • include thre e main characteristics of wetlands: 1) prese nc e of s urface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that h as adapted to li v ing in wet conditions. Countless va riations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often m a ke it diffi c ult to d e t ermine whether or not a particul ar FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : During colonia l time s, wetland s were regard e d as d ark. dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disea se, obstructed overland trave l and re s tricted food production . -Theodore • Wet lands were viewed as obs tacles to deve lopment -places th at must be drain e d . As Goodridge Roberts : Fo r more information, contact: Save Our Streams 707 Conservation Lane Gaithersburg, MD 20878-2983 • soc iety becam e aware of the wea lth of ben e fits wetl a nd s offer, v ie w s about wetlands • changed considerably. People b ega n to rea li ze th at wetlands hav e both ecological an d • • economic impo1tance. Conserving wetland s offe rs many benefits, includ ing : • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wet lands provide s helter, food, and s pawnin g and nes ting s it es for : many species of birds , fi s h , mamm a ls, reptil es a nd invertebrates. A lthou g h wetla nd s : m ake up only about 5 percent of la nd in the Un ited States , th ey s upport about 190 : amphibian s pecies and one-third of all bird s pecies in the country. Almost 43 percent • of the federally li sted threatene d a nd endangered animal s pecies are in some way • • dependent on wetlands for s urv iva l. • Phone: (301) 548-0 1 SO • (8 ooJ BUG-IWLA • Floodwater Storage -Depe nding on the area's topography and location in the water-• E-mail: so s@ iwla.o r g • shed, wetlands can act as water s torage areas. We tl ands located along a river are espe- Webs ite : www.i wla .org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type, location , soi ls and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action . In 1992 , Hunicane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the de ve loped coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force, it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baITier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte 1ing polluted rW1off from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transfo1m a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentiall y dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic B e nefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim - ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent durin g some stage of their Jive s. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recrea tion -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happ y just knowing that wild and beautiful places, s uch as natural wetland s, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our nation 's wet land s have been poll uted , filled in , paved over a nd large ly ignored • • since European settlers first arrived in North America. Swamps , bogs and marshe s • • were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create ·'productive land." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wet lands are not wastelands; they are vita l : breeding habitat for wi ldlife , wate r filtration and storage areas . They also are important : to the recreational. commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- l NA GREEN • tries. Their natural funct ions, such as storing flood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people . But we continue to destroy our wetland s at an alaiming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamp s, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonl y found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, a nd some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many di ffere nt definitions of we tland s, so me scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal , w hi ch affect wetlan d regulations and wetl and protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of su rface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils fo1med under waterlo gged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrop hytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : During colon ia l times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : enco ura ged disease, obstructed ove rland trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were v iewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained . As Goodridge Roberts : society became aware of the wea Ith of benefits wetlands offer, views about wet lands • • changed considerably. People bega n to realize th at wetland s have both ecological and • • economic importance. Conserving wetlands offe rs many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands provide s h e lt er, food , and spawning a nd nes ting si tes for : many species of birds , fish, m amma ls, reptiles and invertebrates . A lth ough wetland s For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States, th ey support about 190 contact: save our Streams : amphibian species and one-third of all bird species in the co unt ry. A lm ost 43 percent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatened and endangered animal species are in some \'Vay • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on \·Vet lands for surviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • (800) BUG-IWLA : Floodwater Storage -Depending o n the area's topography and location in the water- E-mail: sos@iwla.org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas . Wetl ands loc ated along a river are espe- Website: www.iwla .org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S . Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the we t land's type , location , soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte 1ing polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic B e nefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife . Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation 's wetlands have be en polluted , fil led in , paved over and large ly ignored since E uropea n settlers fir st arrive d in North America. Swamps, bogs and marsh es were seen as wastelands that were be s t avo ided or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wetlands are not wastelands ; they are vital • • breedi ng ha bitat for wi ldl ife , water fi ltration an d s torage areas. They also are important : to the re creatio nal , commercial food h arvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries. Their natural function s, s uch as storing flood waters and producin g seafood, are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wet lands ar e constantly wet, and some are wet only during certain times AND RANKS OF: of the year. There are many different definitio ns of wetla nds , some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • le ga l, which affect wetland regulations and wetland protection . Mo st defi nition s • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) prese nce of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric soi ls (soils fanned under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in .wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of the se characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS . : During colonia l times, wet lands were regarde d as d ark , dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease, obstructed overla nd trave l and restricted food production . -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to de ve lop ment -places that must be drained . As Goodridge Roberts : soc iety beca me aware of the wealth of be nefi ts wetlands offer, v iews about wetlands • • changed considerably. People b ega n to rea li ze that wetlands ha ve both ecological and • • eco nomic impo 11ance. Conserving wetlands offers many benefits , including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands pro vi de shelter, food, and s pawning and nesting si tes for : many spec ies of birds , fis h, m am ma ls , r ep til es and inv e rtebrate s. A lthou g h wetlands Fo r more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in th e Un ited States , they s upport a bout 190 contact: save our Streams : amphib ian s pecies and one-third of all bird s pecies in the country. Almost 43 percent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatened and endangered anima l species are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • depende nt on we tl ands for surviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • t8 oo1 BUG -IWLA • Floodwa ter Storage -Depending on t he area's topography and location in the water-• E-mail : sos @iwla.org • shed, wet lands can act as water storage areas . Wetlands located along a river are espe- Web site: www.i w l a .o r g : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type, location , soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shjeld coastlines and dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Loui s iana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their Jives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 bi I lion annua}ly to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on trav el. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licen ses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing , bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt. fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , s till exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetland s firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1 999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our nation 's wet lands have been polluted , fil led in, paved over and large ly ignored • • since European settlers first anived in North America. Swamps, bogs and mars he s • • were seen as wastelands that were be s t avoided or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wetlands are not wastelands ; they are vital : breedi ng habitat for wi ld l ife. water fi ltration a nd storage areas . They also are important : to the recreational , commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- l NA GREEN • tries. Their natural functions. such as storing flood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alanning rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since th e mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been Jost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , • A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrest rial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES : Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PIN~~~T:AN : States. Some wetlands are constan t ly wet, and some are wet only during ce11ain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many differe n t definitio n s of wetla nds , some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland regulations and wetland protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: I) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils fom1ed under waterlogged conditions): and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (h ydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : During colonia l times, wetlands were regarded as dark. dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease , obstructed overl and trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained . As Goodridge Roberts : soc iety became aware of the wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wetlands • • changed considerably. People began to reali ze that wetlands have both ecological and • • economic impo11ance . Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands prov ide shelter. food, and spaw n ing and ne s ting sites for : many species of bird s, fish , mamma ls , reptil es and invertebrates . A lthough wetlands For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States , they support about 190 contact: Save Ou r Stream s : amphibian species and one-third of all bird species in the country. Almost 43 percent 707 Conservat ion Lane • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • depende n t on wetlands for surviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • (8 ooJ BUG -I WLA : Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water- E-ma il: sos @i wla .org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetlands located along a river are espe- Web si te: www.iwla .org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U .S. Am1y Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charle s River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Thjs depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the we tland's type , location, soil s and relationship to the w ate r table . Ero s ion Control -Coas tal wetlands sru e ld coa stlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Loui s iana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair t11e damages because Louisiana 's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands al so reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted rw1off from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transfo1m a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic B e nefits -Fish, shellfish, cranbeJTies , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod - ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fi s h and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 mjJlion on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for vi s ual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing , bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such a s natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excell ent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetland s firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali - ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our nation's wetlands have been polluted, filled in , paved over and largely ignored • • si nce European sett lers first arrived in North America . Swamps. bogs and marshe s • • were seen as waste land s that were best avoide d or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wetland s are not wastelands ; they are vital • • breedi ng habitat for wildlife , water filtration and storage areas. They also are important : to the recreatio nal , commerci al food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indu s- IN A GREEN • tries . Their natural functions , such as storing flood waters and producin g seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alaiming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD : original wetlands hav e been lo st. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , • A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES : Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetland s commonly found in the Uni ted PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during ce rtain times AND RAN KS 0 F : of the year. There are many different definitions of we tlands, some sci en ti fie and some LUSH YOUNG • legal , which affect wetland regulations and wetl a nd protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: l) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions): and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditi ons. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetla nd . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS . • During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark. dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained. As Goodri dge Roberts : society became aware of th e wealth of benefits wetlands offe r, views about wetland s For more information, contact: Save Our Streams • • changed considerably. People began to reali ze that wetlands have both ecological and • • economic impo11ance. Conserving wetlands offers many benefits , including : • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands provide s he lter, food, and spawnin g and nesting s it es for : many species of birds , fish , mammals , r eptiles a nd invertebrates. A lth ough wet la nd s : make up on ly a bout 5 percent of la nd in the U nited States, they support about 190 : amphibi a n species and one-third of all bird spec ies in the country. A lm ost 43 percent • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • • dependent on wet lands for surviva l. 707 Conservation Lane Gaithersburg, MD 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • Floodwa ter Storage -Depending on th e area's top ography and location in the water- shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetl ands loc ated along a river are espe- (800) BUG -IWLA • • E-mail: sos@iwla.org • Website: www.iwla .org • • cially valued for the ir capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of \Ve tlands a long the Charles Ri ve r near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the seaso n and amount of precipitation , as well as th e wetland's typ e, location, soi ls and re lations rup to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands s hi eld coastlines and dis s ipate storn1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave actio n. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the d eve lope d coasts of Fl01ida . But when Andrew hit th e Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by stori ng runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate.. Water Purification -Wetlands help puri fy drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural land s. They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transfo1m a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metal s, and can remove potentia lly dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetl ands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic B enefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other cornn1ercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent durin g some stage of their li ves. The commercial fishin g industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $I 52 billion annually to the economy. Commerc ia l hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetland s also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on tra vel. Anglers spe nt $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lod gi ng in the same year. R ecrea tion -Wetlands prov id e great divers ity and beauty s imply fo r v is ual enjoyment. They prov ide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who ma y neve r visit a wetland may be happy j ust knowing that wild and beautiful places , such as natural wetland s, s till exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratori es. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation s urveys and studies of water quali- ty or w ildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation's wetlands h ave been pol l uted. filled in, paved over and large ly ignored since European settlers first arrived in North America . Swamps, bogs and marshes were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create ·'product ive land." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wet la nds are not wastelands; they are vital : breedi ng habitat for wi ldlife , water filtration and storage areas. They also are important : to the recreatio n a l, com m ercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries . Their natural functio ns , such as storing fl ood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than ha lf the nation's AND GOLD : original wetlands have been lost. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : Wl-lAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constant ly wet, and some are wet only during certain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitio ns of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland regulations and wet land protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet cond itions . Countless variations WITHDRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease, obstructed overl and trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wet lands were viewed as obstacles to develop m ent -places that must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : society became aware of the wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wetlands For more information, contact: Save Our Streams • • changed considerably. People began to realize that wetlands have both ecological and • • economic impo1iance. Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands provide shelter, food, and spawning and nesting sites for : many species of birds , fish, mamma ls, reptiles a nd invertebrates. Although wet lands : make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States , they support about 190 • amphib ian species and one-third of a ll bird species in the country. Almost 43 percent • 707 Conservat ion Lane • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for surviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • (8 ooJ BUG -IWLA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water-• E-mail : sos @iwla .org • shed, we tl ands can act as water sto rage areas. Wetlands located along a river are espe- Webs ite: www.i w la .org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U.S. Am1y Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles Ri ver near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Thjs depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as th e wetland 's type , location, soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shj eld coastlines and dis si pate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the develope d coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to re pair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective bani er. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw10ff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland depend ent during some stage of their lives. The commerci a l fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife . Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , s till exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratorie s. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 Augu st 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology O ur na t ion 's we tl a n d s h ave b een po ll ut ed. fi lled in , paved over a nd la rg e ly ig n o red • s in ce E u ropea n sett lers fir st arrive d in N o rt h A m eric a . Swamp s , bo gs a n d m a r s he s • • we re see n as was te la nd s th a t we re b e s t a vo id e d o r fi ll e d to create ·'p rod uct ive la nd ." • • To d ay, we a re b eginning t o recog ni ze that we t lan ds are n o t wa ste la nd s; th ey a re v ita l : breed in g ha bit a t fo r w ildlife , w a te r filt ra ti o n and storage a reas . Th ey al so a re imp o rt a nt : to th e rec rea ti o n a l, co mm e rc ia l foo d ha r ve st , as w e ll as th e to uri s m a n d timb e r indu s- IN A GREEN • tries. Th e ir n atu ra l fu nc ti o n s , s uc h as s to r ing flo o d wat e rs a nd p ro du c in g seafood , a re PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : im po rta nt to peo pl e . But we co ntinu e to destro y o ur we tl a nd s a t a n a lmmi ng ra te to WITH AMBER : m a k e way fo r roa d s a nd d eve lo pme nt. Since th e m id-!800 s m ore tha n ha lf the natio n 's AND GOLD : orig in a l w e tl a nd s h ave been lost . AND BLUE -• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , • A wetl a nd is an ecosyste m tha t h as b o th terrestri a l a nd aqu ati c c haracte ri s ti cs. AND ROSES : S w a mps , m a r s hes a nd bogs a re ty p es o f wetlands co mmonly fo und in the Unite d PINKER THAN • DAWN : S tates . So m e wetl a nd s are cons ta nt ly w e t , and som e a re w e t onl y duri ng ce 1tain times AND RANKS OF : of th e year. The re a re man y di ffe r e nt definition s of wetl a nd s, so m e sc ie ntifi c a nd so m e LUSH YOUNG • lega l, w hi c h a ffec t we tl a nd regul a ti o n s an d wetland p ro te cti o n . M os t defi nition s • REEDS • includ e three m a in c h a rac te r is t ics of wetl a nd s: 1) p rese n ce o f s urface water o r w a ter in AND GRASSES : the ro o t zone; 2) h y dri c soil s (so il s form e d unde r waterlo gged conditi o n s ); a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : e ta tion (h yd ro phy t es) tha t has a d a pte d to li v ing in w e t c onditio n s. Co untl ess va ri at io n s WITH DRAWN • o f these c harac te ri sti cs ofte n m a ke it diffi c ult to d e te nnine wh e th e r o r no t a p a rt icu lar FROM GRAVEN : a r ea i s a wetl a nd . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • • STANDS . • During co lo ni a l tim es, w e tl a nd s were regard e d a s d ark , di sm a l swamp y a reas that : e nco ura ged di se a se , o b stru c te d over land trave l a n d res tri c te d fo o d produ cti o n . -Theodore • We tl a nd s were v iewed as o b s tacles to d eve lo pm e nt -pl aces th a t mu s t b e d ra in e d . As Goodridge Roberts : Fo r more information, co ntact: Save Ou r Streams 707 Conservation Lane Gaithe rsburg, MD 20878-2983 • soc ie ty beca m e awa re o f th e wea lt h of bene fit s w e tl a nd s o ffe r, v iews abo u t w e tl a n ds • c h a nge d co n s id e rabl y. Peo pl e b egan to rea l ize th a t wetl a nd s h ave both e colog ica l an d • • eco no mi c imp o1ta n ce . C onserv ing w e tl a nd s o ffe rs m a ny b e nefits, in c ludin g : • • • • JtVi l dl [fe H ab ita t -We tl a nd s prov id e s he lt e r, food , a nd s p aw nin g a nd n es tin g s it es fo r : many s pecies of bird s , fi s h , m a mmal s, re ptil es and in ve rte b rate s . A lth o ug h we t land s : make up on ly a bo ut 5 pe rce nt of la nd in th e Un ite d S ta tes , th ey s u pp ort a b o ut 190 : a mph ibi a n s pecies a nd on e-third o f a ll bi rd s pec ies in th e country . A lm os t 43 pe rce nt • o f th e fed era ll y li sted threate ne d a nd e nd a n ge re d a n im a l s p e ci es a re in som e w ay • • d e p e nd e nt o n w e t la nd s for s urv iva l. • Phone: (301) 548-0 150 • <8001 BUG -IWLA • Floo d water S torage -D e pe ndin g on th e area's topogra phy a nd loca ti on in the w a ter-• E-ma il: sos @iwla .org • s he d , w e tla nd s can ac t as wate r sto ra ge a reas. Wetl a nd s lo ca te d a lo ng a r ive r a re es pe- Web si te: www.i wl a.o rg : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type, location, soils and rela t ionship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective bani er. Wetlands also reduce channel ems.ion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercia lly harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our na tion 's wetlands have b een polluted , filled in , paved over a nd largely ig nored s in ce E urop ea n settlers first arrived in North America . Swamps, bogs and m ars hes were seen as wastelands that were be st avo ided or filled to create ·'productive la nd . ., • • • • • Today, we are beginning to recog ni ze th at wetlands are not wastelands ; they a re vita l • • breedi n g habitat for wild l ife , w a ter filtration and storage areas. They a lso are impo1tant : to the recreational , commercial food harvest, as w e ll as th e touri s m a nd timber indu s- l NA GREEN • tries. T h eir natural functio n s , such as storing flood waters and producin g seafood , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to pe ople . But we continue to destroy our wetlands at a n alanning rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s m ore than half th e nation's AND GOLD : original wetlands have been lo st. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS , : A wetland i s an ecosystem that has both te rrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are consta ntly wet, and some are wet only durin g ce1tain time s AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many diffe rent definition s of wetlands, so me sc ie ntific and so me LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affect wetland re g ulation s and we t land protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) pre se nce of surface wa ter or water in AND GRASSES : th e root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to li ving in wet conditions. Countless va riations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine wheth e r or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS . • During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as d ark, di smal swampy areas that : encouraged di sease, obstructed overland travel and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetla nds were viewed as obstacl es to deve lopment -places th at mu st be drained . As Goodridge Roberts : soc ie ty b eca me aware of the wealth of b enefits wetlands offer, v iews about wetlands • • changed considerably. Pe ople began to rea li ze th at wet land s h ave both eco lo g ic a l and • • eco nomic importance . Conserving wetland s offers man y benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands prov ide shelter, food, a nd s pawnin g a nd nestin g s ite s for : m a ny s peci es of bird s , fi s h , mammal s , reptil es and invertebrates. A lth o ugh wetlands For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States , they s upport about 190 contact: save our Streams : amphibian s pecies and one-third of all bird s pecie s in the country. Almost 43 perce nt 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatened and endangered animal s pec ie s a re in so m e wa y • Ga i t h ersburg, MD • d e pendent on wetlands for surviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • 18001 BUG-IWLA : Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topograph y and location in the water- E-mail: sos@iwla.org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas . Wetl a nd s loc a ted along a river are espe- Webs ite: www.iwla .org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type, location, soils and relationship to the wate r table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and o ther commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States a re wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our nation's wetlands have been polluted, fi ll e d in , paved over and largely ignored • • since E uro pea n se ttl ers first aITived in North America . Swamps , bogs and marshes • • were seen as wastelands that were best avoided o r filled to create ·'productive la nd." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wet la nd s are not wastelands ; they a re vital • • breed in g hab it at for wildlife , water filt ratio n a nd storage areas. T hey also are imp orta nt : to the recreational , com m e rcial food harvest, as well as th e tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries. Their natural functions, such as storing fl ood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wet lan d s at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and d evelopme nt. Since the mid-l 800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD : origina l wetlands h ave been lost. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF -. : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS , : A wetla nd is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs a re types of wetlands conunonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are co nsta ntl y wet, a nd some are wet only during certai n times AND RANKS OF : of the yea r. T he re are many di ffere nt definitions of wetlands, some sc ientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, w hi ch affect wetla nd regulations and wet la nd protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: I) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone: 2) h ydric so il s (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophy tes) that h as adapted to living in wet conditi ons. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS. • During co lonia l times, wetla nd s were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : enco uraged disease , obstru cted ove rl and trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : society became aware of t he wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wet lands For more in formation, contact: Save Our Streams 707 Conservation Lane Gaithersburg, MD 20878-2983 • • cha nged cons id erab ly. People began to realize that wetlands h ave both eco logica l and • • econo mi c impo1tance. Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, inc luding: • • • • Wild life Ha bitat -Wetlands provide s he lter, foo d , and spaw nin g a nd nes tin g s it es for : many species of birds , fish, m am mal s , reptiles a nd invertebrates . A lth ough wetlands : make up only a bo ut 5 percent of la nd in the U nited States, they support about 19 0 : amphibi a n species a nd o ne-third of all bird spec ies in the co untry. Almost 43 percent • of the federally l isted threatened an d end angered animal species are in some way • • dependent on \Vetlands for s urviva l. • Phone : (301) 548-01 SO • 18001 BUG-IWLA • Floodwa ter S torage -Depending on th e area's top ography and location in the water-• E-mail: sos @iwla .org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage a reas . We tl ands lo cated along a river are espe- Website: www.iwla .org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wet land's type, location , soils and relationship to the wate r table . Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $1 §2 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on traveL Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Rec reation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Our n a tion ·s wetlands have be e n po lluted , fi ll ed in , paved over a nd large ly ig nored • s in ce European settlers first a nive d in North America. Swamps. bogs a nd m a rsh es • • were see n as wastelands that were bes t avoided or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we a re beginning to recogni ze th a t wetlands are not wastelands ; th ey are v ital • • breed in g habitat for wildl ife , water fi ltration a n d storage areas. They also are important : to the recreationa l, commercial food h arvest, as well as t he to uri s m and timbe r indus- IN A GREEN • tri es. T heir n a t u ra l funct ion s. s uc h as storing fl ood waters and producin g seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to pe ople . But we continue to d estroy our wetlands at a n alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for road s and development. Sinc e the mid-1 8 00s more th a n ha lf the nation's AND GOLD • origina l wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE-• • A PLACE OF • WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terres t rial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constant ly wet, and some are wet only durin g ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of t h e year. There are many differe nt definitio n s of wetlands, s ome scientific a n d some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affect wetland regul a tions a nd we tl and protection . Most defi nition s • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : th e root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils fom1ed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet cond ition s . Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of the se characteri stics often make it diffi c ult to determi ne wheth e r or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : During colonial times, wetland s were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : e ncouraged di sease, obstructed overland tra ve l and res tricted food production. -Theodore • We t la nds were viewed as obs ta cl es to develop m ent -places th a t mu s t be drained . As Goo dridge Rob e rts : soc ie ty b eca me aware of th e wealth of b e n e fit s w e tland s offer, v iews a bout wetlands • • changed conside rably. Peop le b ega n to reali ze th at wetlands have both ecol o g ica l an d • • economic impo1tance . Conserving wetland s offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wi ldlife Habitat -Wet lands prov ide s h elter, food , and s pawn in g a n d ne sting sites for : m a ny s peci es of birds , fish , mamm a ls , reptil es and invertebrates. Although wetlands For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of la nd in the Un ited States, th ey s upport about 190 contact: Save Our Streams : amphibian s pecies and one-third of all bird s pecies in the country. Almost 43 perce nt 707 Conservation La ne • of the federa lly li sted threatened and endangered animal s pecies a re in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • d e pendent on wet lands for s urviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301 ) 548-0 1 50 • 18001 BUG -I WLA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's to pograph y and location in the water-• E-mail: sos @iwla.o r g • s h e d , wetlands can act as water storage areas . Wetland s located along a river are espe- Website : www.i w l a .org • • cially valued for their ca pacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S . Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Thjs depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type, location , soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands srueld coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and o ther commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands . More t han 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their Jives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting , canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural \Vetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali - ty or wildlife . August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our n a tion 's wetlands have been polluted, filled in , paved over and large ly ignored • • si nce E urop ea n settlers fir st arrived in North Ame ri ca. Swamps, bogs and marshes • • we re see n as waste lands that were b es t avo id e d or filled to create ·'p rod u cti ve land.'' • • Today, we a re b eginning to recogni ze that wetl a nd s are n ot wastelands ; they are vital • • breeding ha bita t for wildlife, water filt rat ion a nd s torage areas . They also a re imp orta nt : to the recre ationa l, commercial food ha r vest, as well as t he tourism a nd timb e r indu s- IN A GREEN : tri es. Their n a tural functions , such as storing flood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED THROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetland s at a n alann in g rate to WITH AMBER : make way for road s and develo p m e nt. Since the mid -1800 s more than half the nation 's AND GOLD : o ri gin a l wetlands have bee n lo st. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands conunonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are con stant ly wet, a nd some are wet only during ce11ain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different d efinition s of wetland s, som e sc ie ntific and so m e LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affect wetland regul a tion s a nd wet land protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils fom1ed under waterlogged conditi ons); a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that h as a d ap te d to living in wet cond iti ons. Count less variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it diffi cu lt to d e tenn in e whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark, di sma l swampy areas that enco ura ged disease, obstructed ove rland trave l and restricted food prod uctio n . Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to d eve lop m e nt -places th at must be drained. As soc iety b eca m e aware of th e wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wet lands • chan ged considerably. People began to realize that wetland s h ave both ecolo gica l and • • eco nomic impo11ance. Con serving wetlands offers many b e n efits, includi ng: • • • • Wi ldlife Habitat -Wetlands prov id e s h e lt er, food, and s pawnin g and nes tin g s it es for : many s pec ie s of bird s , fish, mamm a ls , rept il es and invertebrates . Although wet la nd s For more information, : make up only about 5 pe rc e nt of la nd in the Un it ed States , th ey support about 190 contact: Save Ou r Streams : am phibian species and one-third of all bird s peci es in the country. Almost 43 p e rc en t 707 Conservation La ne • of the federally li ste d threate ned a nd endangered a nim al spec ies are in some way • Ga ithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for s urviva l. 2087 8-2 983 • Phon e : (301) 548-0150 • 18001 BU G-I W LA : F lood wa ter Storage -D e pending on th e area's top ogra ph y a nd lo catio n in the water- E-mail: so s@ i wla.org • shed , wetlands ca n act as water storage areas. Wetl ands loc a ted along a river a re es pe- Website : www.iwla.o rg • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Am1y Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Thjs depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location , soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Co as tal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate storn1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More t han 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fi sh and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 null ion jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recrea tion -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , such as natural wetlands, sti ll exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our nation 's wetlands have been polluted , filled in , paved ove r and largely ignored • • si nce E uropea n settl ers first aiTive d in North A m erica . Swamps, bogs and m ars h es • • were seen as wastelands that were b est avoide d or filled to create "product ive la nd ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that we tl a nd s are not wastelands ; they are vital • • breeding h ab itat for wi ldlife . wate r filtration and storage areas . T hey a lso are imp orta nt : to the recreational , com m ercial food h arvest, as we ll as the tourism and timber indus- l NA GREEN • tries . Th eir natural functions. such as s toring flood waters and producing seafood , are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to people. But we conti nu e to destroy our wetland s at an alaimi ng rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and d evelopme nt. Since the mid-l 800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • origina l wetlands h ave been lost . • AND BLUE-• A PLA(E OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS, • A wetland is an ecosyste m that has both terrestrial and aquatic c h aracteristics. AND ROSES : Swamps , marshes a nd bogs are ty p es of wetl a nd s commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are co nstantly wet, an d some are wet only during ce1tai n times AND RANKS OF : of the year. T he re are many di ffere nt d efi nition s of wetlands, some sc ientifi c and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, wh ich affect wetlan d regula tion s and wetl a nd protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main ch aracteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) h ydric soi l s (soils fo1med under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etatio n (h ydrophytes) that h as adapte d to living in wet conditions . Countless variations WITHDRAWN • of these characteristics often make it di ffic ult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • • STANDS. • During co lonia l times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease, obstru cted ove rl and trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were v iewed as obstacles to development -places that mu st be drained . As Goodridge Roberts : soc iety b ecame aware of the wea lt h of benefits wetlands offer, views a bout wetlands • • cha nged considerably. People began to realize tha t wetlan d s h ave both ecologica l and • • econo mi c impo1tance. Conserving wetlands offers many be n efits, including: • • • • Wild life H abita t -Wetlands provide s he lter, food , and spaw n ing and n es tin g s it es for : many species of birds , fish , mammals , reptile s and invertebrates . A lth ough wetlands For more information, : make up only a bo ut 5 percent of la nd in the U nited States, th ey support about 190 contact: save our Streams : amphibi a n species a nd one-third of all bird s pecies in the country. A lm ost 43 percent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatened and endangere d animal spec ies are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for s urviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • 18001 BUG-IWLA • Floodwater S torage -Depending on th e area's top ography and location in the water-• E-mail: sos@iwla.org • shed, wetlands ca n act as water storage areas . Wetl ands located along a river are espe- Website: www.iwla .org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S . Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of \Vetlands along the Charles R iver near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A v,:etland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the sea son and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type , location, soils and relationship to the wate r table . Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action . In 1992 , Hunicane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana 's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transfotm a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other cornn1ercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States a re wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Cornn1ercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt , fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1 999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation 's wetlands have been polluted , fil led in, paved over a nd large ly ig nored si nc e European settlers first arrived in North America. Swamps, bogs an d marsh es were seen as wastelands that were best avoide d or fi lied to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogn ize that wetlands are not wastelands ; they are vital • breeding habitat for wildlife , water filtration and storage areas. They also are important • : to the recreational , commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries. Their natural functions. such as storing flood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alaiming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during certain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitio n s of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland regulations and wetland protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) prese nce of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric soi ls (soils fom1ed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS . • • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that encouraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and re stricted food production . Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained . As society became aware of the wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wetlands • changed considerably. People began to reali ze that wetlands have both ecological and • • economic impo11ance . Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands provide shelter, food, and spawning and nesting sites for : many species of birds, fish, mamma ls, reptil es and invertebrate s. Although wetlands For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States , they support about 190 contact: Save our Strea m s : amphibian species and one-th ird of all bird species in the country. A lmost 43 percent 7 07 Co n se r vati o n Lan e • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • Ga i thersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for survival. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 5 0 • <8 ooJ BUG -I W LA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water-• E-ma i l : sos @iwla.org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetlands located along a river are espe- Web site : www.iwla .o rg : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands a long the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon th e season and amount of precipitation, as well as the wetland 's type, location , soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Co11trol -Coastal wet lands srueld coastlines and dissipate storm energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992, Hunicane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force, it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw10ff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other cornn1ercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and she llfi sh in the United States a re wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides near ly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland anima ls such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, cano eing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of a ll adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild a nd beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specia li zed habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our nation 's wetlands have been pollut ed , fil le d in , paved over a nd largely ignored • • si nce E uropean settlers first a n ive d in North America. Swa mp s , bogs an d m ars h es • • were see n as wastelands that were be s t avoided or filled to create ·'produ ct ive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to re cogni ze tha t we t lands are not wasteland s; th ey are vita l • • breeding habitat for wildlife , water fi ltration a nd storage areas. They also are important : to the recreational , commercial foo d ha rvest, as well as the touri s m and timbe r indu s- IN A GREEN • tries. Their natura l function s, s uc h as s torin g fl ood wa te rs and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our we tl a nd s at a n ala 1min g rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and deve lopment. Since the mid-I 800 s m ore than half the natio n 's AND GOLD • orig inal wetlands have been lo st. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, : A wetland is an ecosystem tha t has both terre strial and aquatic characteristics . AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States . Some wetlands are consta nt ly wet, a nd some are wet only durin g ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many diffe rent definitio ns of wetla nds , som e sc ie ntific and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affect wetland regul a tion s and wet land protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristic s of wetlands: 1) prese nce of s urface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countle ss va ri atio n s WITH DRAWN • of the se characteristics often m ake it difficult to d e te rmine wheth e r or not a particul a r FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as d ark, di smal swamp y a re as th a t : encouraged disease, obs tructe d ove rland tra ve l and res tricted food production . -Theodore • Wet lands were viewed a s obs tacles to d eve lopment -place s that mu st be drained . As Goodridge Roberts : For more information, contact: Save Our Streams • soc iety beca me aware of th e wea Ith of be nefits w e tl a nd s offer, views abo ut wetlands • changed cons iderably. People began to rea li ze th at we tland s have both eco lo g ic a l and • • economic impo1tance . Conserving wetlands offers m a ny benefits, includin g: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetland s pro vi d e shelter, food, a nd s pawnin g and nes tin g s ite s for : many s pecies of birds , fi s h , m am mal s , reptil es and invertebrates. Although we t la nd s : make up only about 5 percent of la nd in th e Un ited States, th ey s upport about 190 707 Conservation Lane • : a mphibian species and one-third of all bird s pecie s in the country. Almost 43 pe rc e nt of the federally li sted thre atened and endangered animal species a re in so me way dependent on wet lands for s urv iva l. Ga ithersburg, MD : 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0 150 • (8 oo) BUG -IWLA : Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water- E-mail: sos @iwla.org • shed , wetland s can act as water storage areas . Wetl and s locate d a lon g a river are espe- Webs i te: www.iwl a .org : cially va lu ed for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that Joss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the sea son and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location , soi ls and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wet land s shi e ld coast lin es and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers again st wind , rain and wave action. Jn 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana 's coas tal wetlands pro- vided a protective baITier. Wetlands also reduce cha1mel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and i:.eleasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients , transfo1m a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and he avy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranbeITies , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands . More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fi s h and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide end less opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fi s h , bird-watch or photograph wi ldlife . Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our na tion's wetlands h ave been pollute d , fil led in , pave d ove r and la rge ly ig nored • • • s in ce E uropea n se ttlers first aITive d in North Ameri ca. Swamps, bogs a nd mars hes we re see n as wastelands that were be s t avo ided or filled to create ·'producti ve la nd ." • • • Today, we a re be g innin g to recogni ze th a t wetlands are not wastelands; they are vital : breedi ng habitat for wild life , w a ter filtration a nd storage areas. They also are importa nt : t o the recrea tional , commercial food harvest, as well as the touri sm and timb e r indus- IN A GREEN • tri es. T heir natura l function s , such as s toring flood waters and producin g seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to peo ple . But we continue to destroy our wetlands a t a n alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for road s and development. Since the mid-1800 s m ore than half the natio n 's AND GOLD : origina l wetland s have been lo st. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps. marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are consta nt ly wet, and some are wet only during ce11ain time s AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many differe nt definitions of wetland s , some scientific and so me LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affect wetland regulation s and wetland protection . Most d efi nition s • REEDS • include three main characteri sti cs of wetl ands : 1) pre se nce of s urface wa ter or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone: 2) hydric soils (soils forn1ed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that ha s adapted to li v ing in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to detennine wheth e r or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : During colonia l times , wetland s were regarded as dark, dismal swampy are as th at : encouraged disease, obs tructed overland trave l and re s tricted food production. -Theodore • Wetland s were viewed as obstacles to d eve lop m ent -places that must be drained . As Goodridge Roberts : Fo r more informa tion, contact: Save Our Streams • soc iety beca me aware of th e wealth of be ne fits wetlands offer, v iews a bout wetlands • changed considerably. People began to reali ze that wetlands ha ve both eco lo g ic a l and • • economic impo11 a nce . Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wildl!fe Habitat -Wet lands pro vide shelter, food , and s pawnin g and nesting s it es for : many s pec ie s of bird s, fi s h , mamma ls , re ptil es and invertebrates. Although wetlands : m ake up only a bout 5 percent of la n d in the Uni ted States, th ey s upport about 190 • amphibian s pec ies and one-third of all bird s pecie s in the country. Almost 43 percen t • 101 Conse r vation Lane • of the federally listed threaten ed and endangered animal species are in so me way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on we tl ands for surviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • 18001 BUG -IWLA : Floodwa ter Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water- E-mail: sos @iwl a .o r g • s hed , wetlands can act as water s torage areas. Wetlands located along a river are espe- Website : www.iwla .org : cially valued for their capac ity to reta in floo d water. In 1972, the U .S . Am1y Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have ca used $17 million in annual flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Th_is depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as th e wetland's type, location , soils and relationshi p to the water tab le. Erosion Control -Coastal wet lands sh_ield coastlines and dis si pate stom1 energy. They act as buffers aga in st wind, rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in d amage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit th e Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barri er. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transfo1m a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and hea\Ty metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other cornn1ercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States a re wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercia l fishing industry provides near ly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 a:Ad contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Cornn1ercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the sa me year. R ecrea tion -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty s imply for vis ual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt , fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, sti ll ex ist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation's wet lands h ave been polluted , fil led in , paved over and largely ignored s ince European settlers first aITived in North America . Swamps. bogs and marshes were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wet land s are not wa s teland s; they are vital • • breeding habitat for wi ldlife , water filtration a nd storage areas. They also are important : to the recreational , commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- l NA GREEN • tries. Their natural functions , such as storing flood waters a nd producin g seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we conti nu e to destroy our wetlands at an almming rate to WITH AMBER : make \.vay for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • orig in a l wetlands have been lo st. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAN.P? WATERAND : WEEDS, • A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES : Swamps, marshes a nd bogs are types of wetlands conunonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constant ly wet, and some are wet only during certain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitions of we tl a nd s, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal , which affect wetla nd regulations and wetl and protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: l) pre se nce of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone: 2) h y dric soi l s (soi ls formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • • • During co lonia l times, wet lands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that encouraged disea se, obstructed overland trave l a nd restricted food production . Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained . As society be came aware of the wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wetlands changed considerably. People began to reali ze that wetla nd s h ave both ecologica l and • economic importance . Conserving wetland s offe rs many benefits, including: For more information, contact: Save Our Streams 707 Conservation Lane Gaithersburg, MD 20878-2983 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands provide s h e lt er, foo d , and spaw nin g and nest in g s it es for many species of birds , fish, mammals , reptiles and invertebrates. Although wetlands make up only about 5 percent of land in the Un it ed States, they support about 190 amphibian species and one-third of all bird species in the country. A lm ost 43 percent of the federally li sted threatened and e nd ange red animal species are in some way dependent on wetlands for surviva l. Phone: (301) 548-0150 • (8001 BUG -IWLA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water-• E-mail: sos@iwla.org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetlands located along a river are espe- Websi te: www.iwla.org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This de pends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as we.II as the wetland's type, location, soi ls and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. Jn 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs duri ng floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw1off from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and she llfi sh in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides near ly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the econvmy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Ang lers spent $37.8 bi lli on on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. R ecreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for vi s ual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreationa l activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish, bird-watch or photograph wildlife . Even people who may never visit a we tland may be happ y just knowing that wild and beautiful places , such a s natural wetland s, still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET • • • • • • Wetland Ecology • • • • Our nation 's w e tlands have b een polluted , fil led in , paved over and large ly ig nored • s ince European settlers fir st anived in North America . Swa m ps. bogs a nd m a rs h es • • we re seen as wastelands that were b est avoide d or filled to create "p rod ucti ve land.'' • • Today, w e are b eg inning to recog ni ze th a t we tl ands are not wastelands ; th ey a re vital : breeding habitat for wi ldli fe , water filtrati o n and storage a reas. They a lso are important : to th e recreational , com m e rci a l food harvest , as w e ll as th e touri s m a nd timb e r indu s- IN A GREEN • tri es. Their natural function s , such as s torin g flo od wa te rs a nd producin g seafood , a re PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people . But we continue to destroy our wetland s at an a larmin g rate to WITH AMBER : make way for road s and development. Since th e mid -1800 s m ore than ha l f the n atio n 's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem tha t has both te rrestri a l and aquatic cha racte ri s ti cs . AND ROSES • Swamps , marshes a nd bogs are types of we tlands commonly found in the Un it ed PIN~~~TNHAN : States. Some wetlands are constant ly wet, a nd some are wet only during certain time s AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many di ffere nt definitions of wetla nd s, so m e sc ie ntific a nd so me LUSH YOUNG • legal , which a ffect wetl a nd regulatio n s an d wetl and protection . Most d efi nition s • REEDS • incl ud e three main characteri stics of wetlands: 1) prese nc e of s urfac e water o r water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric so ils (soi l s fom1 e d under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (h ydrop hytes) that h as adapted to living in wet cond iti o n s . Countless variations WITHDRAWN • of the se characteristics often m ake it diffi c ult to d e termine whether or not a partic ul ar FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : During co lonial time s, wetlands were regarded as dark, di sm a l swam py areas th at : enco ura ged di sease, obstru cted ove rl a nd trave l a nd res tri c ted food production . -Theodore • Wetla nd s were v iewed as obstac les to d eve lopm e nt -places th at mu st be drain e d . As Goodridge Roberts : soc iety beca m e aware of the wea Ith of b ene fits w e tl an d s offer, views a bout wetlands Fo r more information, contact: Save Our Streams • • changed considerably. P eopl e bega n to rea li ze that wetland s h ave both ecologica l and • • eco nomic impo1tance. Con servi ng wetland s offers many ben efits, including: • • • • Wild life Habitat -Wetland s prov ide s h e lter, food, and s pawnin g a nd n es tin g s it es for : many s pec ies of bird s , fi s h , m am m a ls , rept il es and invertebrates . Although wet lands : make up only abo ut 5 pe rcent of land in t h e U nite d States, th ey s upport about 190 • amphibi an s peci es a nd one-third of all bird s peci es in the country. Almost 43 perce nt • 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatened and e nd angered animal speci es a re in som e way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on we tl ands for s u rviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) S48-01 SO • (8 ooi BUG-IWLA • Floodwat er Storage -Depending o n th e area's top ogra ph y and locatio n in the water-• E-mail: sos@iwla .org • s hed , wetlands ca n act as wa ter s torage areas. Wet la nd s located a long a river are espe- Website: www.iwla .org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S. Am1y Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles Rjver near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type , location, soils and relationship to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate storn1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused S20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana 's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands also reduce cha1rnel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fi s h and shellfish in the United States ar e wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing , bird watching and hi k - ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , such as natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our na tion 's wet lands have been polluted , fi lled in , paved over a nd largely ig no red • • s ince E urop ea n se ttlers fir s t aITive d in North America . Swamps, bogs a nd marshes • • we re see n as wastelands that were be s t avoided or filled to create ·'produ ctiv e land." • • Today, we a re beg inning to recogni ze th a t wetlands a re not wastelands ; they a re vital • • breeding ha bitat for wildl ife , water :filtrati o n a nd storage areas. They also are important : to th e recrea tiona l, commercial food harves t, as well as the touri sm a nd timb e r indu s- IN A GREEN • tries. Th e ir natural function s , such as s torin g flood waters a nd producing seafood , are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to peo pl e . But we continue to d estroy our wetlands at an alaiming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for road s and development. Since the mid-1800 s more than half th e nation 's AND GOLD • o rigina l wetlands have been lo st. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestiial and aquatic characteristics . AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States . Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet onl y durin g ce1tain time s AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many differe nt definitions of wetlands, s ome sc ientific a nd some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affect wetland reg ul a tion s and wetland protection. Most d efi niti o ns • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of s urfac e water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophyte s) that has adapted to li v ing in wet conditions. Co untle ss variations WITH DRAWN • of these ch arac teri stics often m a ke it difficult to determine whether or not a particul ar FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • During colonial time s, wetlands were regarded as d ark , di smal swam py areas th at e ncoura ge d disease , obstructed ove rl and trave l and re stricted food production . Wetl a nd s were viewed as obstacles to deve lopment -places that must be drained. As soc iety beca m e aware of th e wea Ith of be ne fit s wetl an d s offer, views a bout wetland s • ch a nged considerably. People bega n to re a li ze th at wetlands ha ve both eco logica l a nd • • eco nomic impo1tance . Conserving wetland s offers m a ny benefits, including: • • • • Wil dl[fe Habitat -Wet la n ds pro v ide s h elter, food, and s paw n in g a nd ne s tin g s it es for : many s pec ies of bird s , fi s h , m a mma ls , re ptil es a nd invertebrates. Although wetlands For more information, : make up only about 5 pe rcent of land in the Un ited States , they s upport a bout 190 contact: Save Our Streams : amphibian species and one-third of a ll bird s pecies in the country. Almost 4 3 perce nt 707 Conser vation La ne • of the federall y listed threate ne d and endangered animal s pecies a re in so me way • Ga i thersburg, MD • d e pendent on wetlands for s urv iva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • 18001 BUG -IWLA • Floodwater St orage -Depending on the area's topo gra ph y and location in th e water-• E-mai l : sos@iwla.o r g • s hed , wet lands can act as water storage areas. Wetl a nd s located along a river are espe- Website : www.iw l a .org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location , soils and relationship to the water table . Ero s ion Control -Coas tal wetlands s hi e ld coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the deve loped coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana 's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baITier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nut1ients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -F ish, shellfish , cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 bi llion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 mi ll ion on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. Augu st 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation's wetlands h ave been pol lut ed. fi ll ed in , paved over a nd la rge ly ig nored si nce Europ ea n se tt lers fir st a nive d in North America. Swamps, bogs an d mars hes we re see n as wastelands that were b es t avoide d o r filled to c reate ·'productive land ." • • Today, we a re beg inning to recogn ize that wet lands are no t w astela nd s ; th ey are vital • • breeding habitat for wi ldlife , water fi ltrati o n a nd storage a re as. They also a re important : to the recreationa l, commercial food harve st, as w e ll as th e touri s m and timber indu s- IN A GREEN • tries . The ir natural fun c tion s , such as s tori ng flood wa ters and producing seafood , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to peopl e . But we conti nu e to destroy our wetla nds at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way fo r roads and d eve lop m e nt. Since th e mid-1 800s m ore than ha l f the nation 's AND GOLD : origin a l wetlands have been lost. AND BLUE -• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A W~TLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , • A wetland is an ecosystem th at ha s both terres trial a nd aquatic characteristic s. AND ROSES : Swamps, marshes and bogs are ty pes of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States . Some wetlands are constantly wet, a nd some a re wet only during cettain time s AND RANKS OF : of th e year. There are many diffe rent definitions of wetlands. so m e sc ie ntific and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which a ffec t wetland regu lation s a nd we t l?n.d protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: l ) prese nc e of s urface wa ter or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) h ydric soi ls (soi ls forn1ed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that h as adapted to living in wet conditions . Countle ss variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it diffi cu lt to d e term in e whether or not a particul ar FROM GRAVEN : a rea is a wetland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • • STANDS. • During colonial times , wetlands were regarde d as dark, di smal swam py areas that : e nco ura ge d disease, obstructed ove rland trave l a nd res tricte d food produ ction. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to d eve lop me nt -places th at must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : • soc iety beca me aware of t he wealth of be ne fit s wetl ands offer, views a bout wetlands • c h ange d considerably. Peo pl e bega n to rea lize that wet la nd s h ave both ecolo g ica l and • • eco nomic impo1tance . Con serving wetland s offers many benefits, including: • • • • • • • • Wi ldl(/e Ha b itat -Wetland s prov id e s he lt e r, food, a nd s paw nin g a nd nestin g s ite s for many species of bird s, fi s h , m am mal s, reptil es and invertebrates. A lth ough wetlands make up only about 5 pe rcent of land in the United States , they s upport a bout 190 For more information, contact: Save Our Stream s : am phibian s pe c ies and one-third of all bi rd s pecie s in th e co unt ry. A lm ost 43 perc e nt of the federally li sted threaten ed and e nd a ngered animal s peci es a re in som e way dependent on wetlands for s urviva l. 707 Conservation Lan e • • Gaithersburg, MD • 2087 8-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • <8 ooi BUG -I W LA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on the a rea's topogra phy and loca tion in the water-• E-mail : sos @i wla .o rg • shed , wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetl a nd s located along a river are espe- We bsit e: www.i wla .org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U.S. Anny Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Thls depends upon the season and amount of precipitat ion, as well as the wetland's type , location, soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wet lands shjeJd coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-orgarusms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the Uruted States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs natiomvide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to-the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Ang lers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Rec reation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of a ll adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife . Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor labo ratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specia li zed habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our nation 's wetlands have been polluted , fil led in , paved over a nd large ly ignored • • since European settlers first anived in North America. Swamps, bogs and marshe s • • were seen as wastelands that w e re be s t avoided or fill ed to create ·'productive land .'' • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wet land s a re not wa ste land s; they are vital • • breed ing habitat for wildlife , w a ter filtration and storage areas. They al so are important : to the recreational , commercial food harves t, as well as the touri s m and timber indus- IM A GREEM • tries . Their natural functions, s uch as storin g flood waters and producing seafood , a re PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people . But we continue to de stroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-l 800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lo st . • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics . AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetland s conunonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States . Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RAM KS OF : of the year. There are many different definitions of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal , which affect wetland regulations and wetland protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils forn1ed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions . Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine wh e ther or not a particul a r FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HE ROM • STANDS. : • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark, di s mal s wampy areas that encouraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production . Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to develop m ent -places that must be drained. A s society became aware of the wealth of benefits wetlands offer, view s about wet land s • changed con s iderably. People began to reali ze that wetlands ha ve both e cological and • • economic impo1tance . Conserving wet lands offe rs many benefits, including : • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands provide she lter, food, and spawnin g and nesting sites for : many specie s of birds , fish , mamma ls , reptil es and invertebrate s. Although wetland s For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the Un ited States , they support about 190 contact: Save Our Stream s : amphibian species and one-third of a ll bird species in the country. Almost 43 percent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • Ga ithersburg, MD • dependent on wet lands for surviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • t8 oo1 BUG -I W LA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on th e area's topography and location in the water-• E-ma il: sos @iwla .o rg • shed, wetlands can act as water storage area s . Wetlands located along a river are espe- We bs ite: www.iwla .org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This de pe nds upon the season and amount of precipitation , as we ll as the wet land 's type, location , soi ls and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wet lands shield coastlin es and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Loui siana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana 's coastal wetland s pro- vided a protective banier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw10ff from city streets , building and agricultural land s. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nut1ients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, lovv-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish , shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and she llfi sh in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contribute s $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties su ch as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of a ll adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wild life. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , s uch as natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystem s makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wild life . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PA CKET Wetland Ecology Our n ation 's wetland s have b een pol lute d , filled in , paved over and la rge ly ig no red s in ce Europ ea n settlers fir st aJTived in North America . Swamps, bogs a nd m a rs h es we re see n as wastelands that were b est a vo id e d or filled to c reate ·'productive land .'' • • Today, we are b eg inning to recogni ze th a t wetlands a re no t wasteland s; th ey are vita l • • breeding hab itat for w ildlife , water filtrati o n a nd sto rage areas . They a lso are important : to the re creation a l, commercial foo d harvest, as w e ll as th e touris m a nd timber indu s- IM A GREEM • trie s. Their natura l functions, s uc h as storin g flood waters and producin g seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our we tland s at a n alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way fo r roads and d eve lopment. Since the m id -1 8 00 s m ore th a n half the n ation's AND GOLD • origi n a l wetlands h ave been lo st. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAMD : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem tha t has both terrestrial and aquatic ch aracteristi cs . AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAM • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, a nd some are wet only during ce1tain times AM D RAM KS 0 F : of th e year. T here are many differe n t definitio n s of we tland s , some sc ie nti fie and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which a ffect wetland regulations and wetland protection . Most definition s • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of s urface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric soi ls (so il s formed under waterlogged condi tions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to li vi ng in wet conditions. Countless va ri ation s WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often m ake it diffi c ult to dete rmin e whether o r not a p articular FROM GRAVEN : a re a is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : During colonial time s, wetlands were regarded as dark , di sma l swam py areas that : e n co uraged di sease, obstructed overland tra ve l and restricted food production . -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as o b stac les to d eve lopment -pl aces th a t mus t be drained. A s Goodridge Rob e rts : soc ie ty be ca m e aware of the wealth of bene fit s wetlands offer, views a bout we tl a nd s • • changed considerably. P eopl e b egan to reali ze th at wetla nd s h ave both eco logica l a nd • • economic impo1tance. Conserving wetlands offers many b e nefits, inc ludin g: • • • • Wi ldl ife Habitat -Wet lands prov ide s helter, food , a nd s p aw ni ng a nd nest in g s it es for : man y s p ec ies of bird s , fi s h , m am ma ls , repti les and invertebrate s. A lth ough wetlands Fo r more information, : make u p only about 5 percent of land in the Un ited States , th ey s upport a bout 19 0 contact : Save Our Streams : amphibi a n s p ec ies and one-third of all bird s pec ies in the country. A lm ost 43 percent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal s pec ies are in so m e way • Gaithersburg, MD • d ependent on wet lands for s urv iva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) S48-0150 • (8 ooJ BUG -IW LA : F lood water S to rage -Depen din g on th e area's topogra ph y and lo catio n in th e water- E-mai l : sos@iwla.o r g • sh e d , wetlands can ac t as water storage areas. Wetl and s located alo n g a river are espe - Website : www.iw l a .org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Am1y Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles Ri ve r near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This de pe nd s upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type , location , soi ls and relationship to the water table . Erosion Co11trol -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and di ss ipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the d eve loped coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands also reduce cha1mel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a s lower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural land s. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pe sticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Ben efits -Fis h , shellfish, cranbeJTies , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially im portant prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fi s h and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during so me s tage of their Ji ves. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $72 0 million on equipment and $576 m i llion on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the sa m e year. R ecrea tion -Wetlands provide grea t divers ity and beauty s impl y for visual enjoyment. They provide e ndl ess opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt , fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may neve r visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , s u c h as nat ural wetlands, s till exist. Educa tion -Wetlands make excellent and inexpen s ive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands fir sthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems make s them excellent subjects for research projects s uch as vegetation surveys and studies of water qual i- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJE CTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our n ation 's w e t lands have be en pol l uted . filled in . pave d over a nd la rge ly ig nored • • si nce European settlers fir s t mTived in North A m erica . Swamps, bogs a nd marshes • • we re see n as wastelands that were b es t avoided or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wet lands are not wa ste land s ; they are vital • • breedi n g habitat for wild l ife , water filtrati o n and storage areas. They a lso are importa nt : to the recrea tiona l, commercial food harve s t. as wel I as th e touri s m and timber i ndu s- l NA GREEN • tries. T h eir natura l function s, s uc h as s torin g flood wate rs a nd producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to peopl e . But we continue to destroy our wet la nd s at a n alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for road s and deve lopment. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation 's AND GOLD • original wet lands have been lo st. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT 1$ A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both te rrestrial a nd aquatic c haracte ristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marsh es and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wet lands are constantly wet, and some are wet only durin g ce1tain time s AND RANKS OF : of t h e year. There are many differe n t defin itio n s of wetlan ds , so me scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland regulation s a nd wet land protection. Most defi nitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: I ) presenc e of s urface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of th ese characteristics often m ake it difficult to determine vvhether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • • STANDS . • During colonia l times, wetlands were regarded as d ark , di s mal swampy areas that : enco uraged disea se, obstru cted ove rl and trave l and res tricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacl es to deve lo pment -places th at mu s t b e drained . As Goodridge Rob e rts : soc ie ty became aware of the w ea lt h of be ne fits wetl an d s offer, views a bout wetlands Fo r more information, contact: Save Our Stream s • • c h a n ged considerably. People bega n to re a li ze that wetla nd s ha ve both eco lo g ical and • • economic impo1ta nce . Conserving wet lands offe rs m a ny benefits, including: • • • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands p rovide s h elter. food , and s paw n in g and nesting sites for : many s pec ies of birds , fi s h , mamma ls , reptil es and in ve rte brate s . Although wetla nd s : make up only about 5 percent of land in the Un ited States , th ey s upport about 190 amphibian s pecies and one-third of all bird s pecie s in the country. Almost 43 percent of the federally li sted threatened and endangered animal s pecies are in some way dependen t on wet lands for s urvi va l. 707 Conservation Lane • • Gaithersburg, MD • 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • 18001 BUG -IWLA • Floodwate r Storage -Depending o n the area's topography a n d location in the water-• E-ma il: sos @iwla.org • sh e d , wetlands can act as water s torage area s. Wetland s located along a river are espe- Website : www.iwla .o rg : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S . Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation, as well as the wetland's type , location, soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wet lands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baITier. Wetlands also reduce chairnel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nu trients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod - ucts are harvested from wetlands . More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland anjrnals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Ang lers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing , bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt , fish , bird-watch or photograph wi ldli fe. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our nation's wetlands have been po lluted , fil led in , paved over and largely ig n ored • • since European settlers first anived in North America . Swamps, bogs and marshe s • • were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wetlands are not wastelands; they are vital • • breedi ng habitat for wild life, water filtration and storage areas. They also are importa nt : to the recreational, commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries . Their natural functions. such as storing flood waters and producing seafood , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1800s more than ha lf the nation's AND GOLD : original wetlands have been lost . AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, • A wetla n d is an ecosystem t h at has both terres t rial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES : Swamp s , marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetla nds are con stantly wet, and some are wet only d u ring ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of t h e year. There are many differe nt definitio n s of wetla nds, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, w h ich affect wetland regulatio n s and wetland protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: l ) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric soils (soils fom1ed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : During co lonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wet lands were viewed as obstacles to develop m ent -places that must be dra ined. A s Goodridge Roberts : soc iety became aware of t he wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wet lands For more i nformation, contact : Save Our St reams 707 Conservation Lane Gaithersburg, MD 20878-2983 • • cha nged considerably. People began to re a li ze that wetlands have both ecological and • • economic impo1ta n ce. Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, inc l uding: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetlands provide s h elter, food , and spaw n ing a n d nesting site s for : many species of birds , fish, mamma ls , reptiles a nd invertebrates . A lth ough wetland s : make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States , th ey support about 190 : amphibian species and one-third of a ll bird species in the country. Almost 43 percent • of the federally listed threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • • dependent on wetlands for survival. • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • 18001 BUG -I WLA : Floodwater Sto rage -Depen ding o n the area's topography and location in the water- E-ma il: sos @iwla .org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetlands located along a rive r are espe- Website: www.iwla.org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as we] I as the wetland 's type, location, soils and rela t ionship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coas tal wet lands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJT ier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw10ff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumu late nutrients, transfo1m a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other cornn1ercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States a re wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife . Even peop le who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , such as natural wetlands , still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetland s firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation 's wetlands h ave been polluted , filled in , paved over a nd la rg e ly ig nored sin ce E u ropea n se ttl ers fir st a rrived in North A merica . Swa mp s, bogs a nd m a rs hes we re see n as waste lands that were best avo ided or filled to create ·'productive la nd ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that we tl and s a re not w astela nd s; they a re vital • • breedi ng habitat for wi ldli fe, water filtration a nd storage areas . They also are important : to th e recreational , com m erc ia l food harvest, as well as the touri s m and timber indu s- l NA GREEN • tries. Their natural functions , s uc h as storing flood waters and producing seafood, a re PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we conti nu e to destroy our wetland s at a n a larm in g rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads a nd d evelopment. Since th e mid-1800 s more th an half the nation's AND GOLD • orig in a l wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , • A wetland is an ecosystem tha t has both terrestrial and aquat ic characte ristic s. AND ROSES : Swamp s, marshes and bogs a re types of wetlands commonl y fo und in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet on ly during ce1tain time s AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many di ffere nt d efinitions of wetla nd s, some sc ientific a nd so me LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affect wetla nd regulatio n s and wetland protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteri stics of wetl a nds: 1) prese nce of s urface wa ter or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric so ils (soi ls fo1med under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophy tes) that h as adapted to living in wet cond iti ons . Co untles s variations WITHDRAWN • of these c haracte ri stics often m a ke it difficult to determine wheth e r or no t a partic ul ar FROM GRAVEN : a rea is a wet land. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : During colonial times, wet lands were regarded as dark, di smal swam py areas th at : enco ura ged disease, o b stru cted ove rland trave l and re stricted food production . -Theodore • Wet la nd s were viewed as obstacles to deve lopment -pl aces th at mu st be drain ed . As Goodridge Rob erts : soc iety beca me aware of th e wea lth of be nefits wetl ands offer, views about wet lands changed considerably. People bega n to reali ze that we tl a nds have both ecolo g ic a l and • • • • economic impo1tance . Con serving wetlands offer s many benefits, including: • • • • Wi ldlife Habitat -Wetlands provide s he lt er, food , and s pawnin g and nes ting s it es for : many species of bird s , fish , m a mmal s , reptil es a nd invertebrates. A lth o ug h wetland s Fo r more information, : make up only a bout 5 percent of land in the Unit ed States , they s upport abo ut 190 contact: Save Our Streams : amphibian s pecie s and one-third of a ll bird s pecie s in th e country. Almost 43 percen t 101 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatened a nd e nd angered anima l s pecies a re in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on \Ve t lands for s urviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • (8 ooJ BUG -IWLA : Floodwa ter S torage -D e pe nding on th e area's top ography and location in the water- E-mail: sos @iwla .org • s hed , wetlands ca n act as water storage areas . Wetl ands loc ated along a river are espe- Website: www.iwla.org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Am1y Corps of Engineers determjned that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This de pends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type, location, soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coa stal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective ban-ier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish, bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our nation 's wetlands have b een polluted, fill e d in , paved over a nd large ly ig nored • s ince E urop ea n settlers first aJTived in North America . Swamps, bogs and marshes • • • we re seen as wastelands that were be s t avoided or filled to create "productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recognize that wetland s are not wastelands ; they are vital • • breeding habitat for wild l ife , water fi ltration and storage a reas . They also are important : to the recreation a l, commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries. The ir natural function s , s uch as storing flood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people . But we continue to d estroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since th e mid-l 800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lo st. • AND BLUE -• A PLACE OF : W _HAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics . AND ROSES • Swamps, marsh es and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during ce11ain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many differe n t definitio ns of wetla nds , some sc ientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland re g ulatio n s and wetland protection . Most d e finitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under w aterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (h ydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of the se ch arac teri stics often m a ke it difficult to determine wheth e r or not a particul a r FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS . : During colonial times, wet lands were regarded as da rk, di smal swampy areas that : encouraged disease , obs tructed overland trave l and res tricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obs tac les to deve lopment -places that must be drained . A s Goodridge Roberts : • soc iety became aware of t he wealth of be n e fits wetl an d s offer, v iews about wetlands • changed considerably. People b ega n to reali z e that wetlands have both ecological a nd • • economic impo11ance. Conserving wetland s offe rs many benefits, incl uding: Fo r more information, contact : Save Our Stream s • • • • • • • • • • 707 Conservati on La n e • Gaithersburg, MD : 20878-2983 • Wildl ife Habitat -Wet lands provide s h e lter, food, and s paw ni ng and ne sting sites for many species of birds , fi s h , mamma ls , reptil es a nd inv e rtebrates . Although wetlands make u p onl y about 5 percent of la n d in th e United States , t h ey sup port about 190 amphibian species and one-third of a ll bird s pecies in the country. Almost 43 perc e nt of the federally li sted threatened and endange red animal s peci es a re in some way dependent on wetlands for survival. Phone: (301) 548-0150 • t8 ooJ BUG -I WLA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topograp hy and location in the water-• E-mail: sos @iwla.o r g • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas . Wet lands located along a river are espe- Website : www.iw l a .org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This de pe nds upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location , soils and relationship to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shie ld coastlines and dissipate storm energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. ln 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the develo ped coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Lou isiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective banier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs du ri ng floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw1off from city streets , building and agricultural land s. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transfotm a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and he avy metals , and can remove potentia lly dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a hi g hly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim - ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and she llfi sh in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their li ves. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Ang lers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide end less opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish, bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natura l wetlands, sti ll ex ist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our n ation 's wetlands have been polluted , filled in , paved over and largely ignored • • since European sett lers first aITived in North America. Swamps, bogs and marshes • • were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create ·'productive land . ., • • Today, we are beginning to recogni ze that wetland s are not wa stelands ; they are vital • • breeding habitat for wildlife , water filtration and s torage areas . They also are important : to the recreational, commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries . Their natural functions , such as s toring flood waters a nd producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we conti nu e to destroy our wetlands at an alanning rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and deve lopme nt. Since the mid-1800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD : origina l wetlands h ave been lost. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics . AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands conunonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States . Some wetlands are constantly wet, a nd some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitions of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland regulations and wetland protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that h as adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particul ar FROM GRAVEN : area is a wet land. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS. • During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : enco ura ged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : society became aware of the wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wetlands changed considerably. People began to realize that wetlands have both ecological and • • • • • • economic impo1tance. Conserving wetlands offers many benefits , including: • • Wild !(fe Habitat -Wetlands provide s helter, food, and spaw nin g and nesting s it es for : many species of birds, fish , m amma ls, reptiles and invertebrates. Although wetland s For more information, : make up only abo ut 5 percent of land in the Un ited States , they support about I 90 contact: Save our Streams : amphibian species and one-third of all bird species in the country. A lm ost 43 percent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for surviva l. 20878·2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • 18001 BUG -IWL A • Floodwater Storage -Depending on th e area's top ograph y and location in the water-• E-mail: sos@iwla.org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas . Wetl ands located a long a river are espe- Website: www.iwla.org : cially va lu ed for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as we ll as the wetla nd 's type, location, soils and relations hip to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wet lands shield coastlines and dissipate s tom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain a nd wave action . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in da mage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana 's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands also re duce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumul ate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from s urface waters . Constructed wetlands are a hi ghl y efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish , shellfish, cranberries, tim- b er, wild rice and other comm ercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially h arvested fish and sh e llfi sh in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland anima ls s uc h as alli- gators , geese, beaver an d muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Ang lers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, li censes, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty si mpl y for vis ual enjoyment. T h ey provide end less opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, ca no eing, bird watc hing and hik- ing. More th an half of a ll adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird -watch or photograph wi ldlife. Even peop le who may never v isit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still ex ist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor labo ratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the s peci a li zed habitat of wetland s firsthand . The comp lexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subj ects for researc h projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our nation's wet lands have be e n pol lu ted , fill e d in , paved over a nd la rge ly ig nored • • since Europ ea n settlers fir st a 1Ti ved in North A m e ri ca . Swa mp s , bogs a nd m ars h es • • we re see n as wastelands that were b est avoided or filled to create ·'producti ve la nd ."' • • To d ay, we a re b eginning to recogni ze that wet lands are not wastelands ; they are vita l • • breedi ng habitat for wild life, water fi ltrati o n and storage areas . T hey also are important : to the recreational , commercial food harvest, as well as the touri s m a nd timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries. Their n atural function s , s uc h as s torin g fl ood waters a nd producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to p e ople . But we continu e to d estroy our wetland s at a n alarmi ng rate to WITH AMBER : make way for road s and d evelopment. S ince the mid-I 8 00 s more than h a lf the n ation's AND GOLD • o riginal wetlands h ave b een lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , • A wetland i s a n ecosystem that has both terrestri a l and aq uati c characteristics. AND ROSES : Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the Unite d PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are con stantly wet, a nd some are wet only durin g ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many di ffere nt d efinition s of wetland s, so me sc ie ntific and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, w hi ch affect wetland regu latio n s and wetl a nd protec ti on. Most d efi nition s • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetl a nd s: I) presenc e of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) h ydric soils (soi ls forn1ed under waterlogged conditions); a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to li vi ng in wet conditions. Countl ess variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often m a ke it diffi c ult to d e term in e w h ether o r not a p a rti cular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS. : • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • During co lonia l times , wetl ands were regarded as d ark, di s mal swampy a rea s tha t e n co ura ged disease, obstructed ove rl and trave l and restricted food production . Wet la nd s were v iewed as obstacles to d eve lo pm e nt -places th at mu st be drain ed. As soc iety beca m e aware of th e wealth of b enefits wetlands offer, views abo ut wetlands • c h a n ge d considerably. Peopl e b ega n to rea li ze that wetlands h ave both eco lo gica l and • • econo mi c impo1tance . Conserving wetlands offers many b e nefits , including: • • • • Wi ldlife Habitat -Wetlands provi d e s he lter, foo d , and s pawnin g and nes ting s it es fo r : many s pec ies of bird s , fish , m amma ls , rep til es a nd in ve rte brates. A lth ough wetlands Fo r more information, : make up only a bout 5 percent of la nd in the United Sta tes, th ey s upport about 190 co ntact : Save Our Streams : amphibian s pecies and one-third of all bird s pecie s in the country. Almost 43 pe rcent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatene d a nd endange red anima l s peci es a re in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent o n we tl a nds for s urv iva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • <8 ooJ BUG -IWLA • Floodwa ter Storage -D e p e nd ing o n th e area's top ograph y a nd location in th e water-• E-mail: sos@iwla.org • shed , wetlands ca n act as water storage areas. Wetl ands located a long a riv e r a re espe- Websi te: www.iwla .org : cially valued for th ei r capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Anny Corps of Engineers determined that lo ss of wetlands along the Charles Ri ver near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Thi s depe nd s upon th e season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location , soils and re la tionship to th e water tabl e. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shi e ld coastlines and dis s ipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave ac tion . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billi o n to re pair the damages becau se Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective banier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by sto ri ng runoff water and releasing it at.a slower rate. Wat er Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerou s m icro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-co st alternative for treating sewage . Economic B e nefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild ric e and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their li ves. The commercia l fi shin g industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, b eaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $72 0 million on equipment and $576 million on tra vel. Anglers s pent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licen ses , travel and lodging in the sa me year. Recreation -Wetl ands provide great diversity and beauty simply for vis ual enjoyment. They provide e ndles s opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties s uch as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More th a n half of all adults across the nation hunt. fi s h , bird-watch or photo grap h wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happ y j ust knowing that wild and beautiful place s , s uch as natural wetlands , still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of a ll ages can b e nefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 : Our nation's w e tlands have been poll uted , filled in , paved over and largely ignored • s ince Europ e an settlers fir s t aiTi ved in North America . Swamps, bogs and marshes • • were seen a s wastelands that w e re best avoided or filled to create "productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogn ize that wet lands are not wastelands ; they are vital • • breeding habitat for wildlife , water filtration and storage areas. They also are important : to the recreational , commercial food harve s t, as well as the tourism and timber indu s- IN A GREEN • trie s. Their natural functions , such as storing flood waters and producing seafood , are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to people . But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-l 800s more than half the nation 's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lo st. • AND BLUE-• • A PLACE OE. • WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics . AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of t h e year. There are many differe n t definitio n s of wetlands, some scientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal , w h ich affect wetland regulations and wetla nd protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands : 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric soils (soils fom1ed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (h ydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine w h ether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : During co lonial t imes, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that : encouraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetla n ds were viewed as obstacles to develop m ent -places that must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : soc iety b ecame aware of t h e wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wetlands • • changed considerably. People began to reali z e that wetlands have both ecological and • • economic impo1tance. Conserving wetlands offe rs many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife Habitat -Wetla n ds provide shelter, food, and spawn ing and nesting s ites for : many specie s of b irds , fis h , mamma ls , reptiles and invertebrates. Alt hough wetlands For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the Un ited States , they support about 190 contact : Save O u r Streams : amphibian species and one-third of a ll bird spec ies in the country. Almost 43 percent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally listed th reatened and e n dange re d animal species are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for surviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • 18001 BUG -I WLA : Floodwa ter Storage -Depending o n the area's topography and location in the water- E-mail: sos @iwla.or g • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas . Wetlands located along a river are espe- Webs i te : www.iwla.org : cially valued for th eir capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U.S. Am1y Corps of Engineers d ete rmined that loss of wetlands alon g th e Charles River near Boston would hav e caused $17 milli on in annual fl ood damage. A wetland also can act as a re c harge s it e for ground water. Thi s d epend s upon the season and amount of precipitati on , as well as th e we tl a nd 's type, location, soi ls and relat ion s hip to the water table . Erosion Control -Coasta l wetlands shje ld coastlines and di ss ipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers aga in st wind, rain and wave actio n. ln 199 2, Hurricane Andrew caused $2 0 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But wh en Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the sa me force , it cost only 2.5 billion to re pair the damages becau se Louisiana 's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective ban-ier. Wetland s a lso reduce channel erosion that occurs durin g flood s by stori n g runoff water and releasing it at a s low er rate. Water Purification -Wetlands h el p puri fy drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted runoff from c it y streets, building and agricultural land s. They trap se di- ments , accumulate nutJients, tran sfo1m a va ri ety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous niicro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a hi g hl y efficient, low -cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic B e nefi ts -F ish, s hellfi sh , cranben-ies , tim- ber, wild rice and other comm ercia ll y important prod - ucts are harves ted from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harves ted fish and s he llfi s h in the United States are wetland d epend ent durin g some stage of their lives. The commercial fi s hin g industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwid e 2 and co ntributes $152 billion annua ll y to th e eco nom y. Commercial huntin g of wetland an imal s such as alli- gator s , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands a lso contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreationa l hunters of mi gra- tory bird s spent $720 million on equ ipment and $576 million on tr avel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on eq uipm e nt , li censes, travel and lod gi ng in th e sa m e year. Recreation -Wetlands provid e great diversity and beauty si mpl y fo r vis ual e njoyment. They prov id e e ndl ess opportunities for popul ar recreational activi- ties such a s hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hi k- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hun t. fi sh , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may neve r vi s it a wet land may be happ y just knowing th at V·iild and b eau tiful places, s uch as natural wetlands, sti ll ex ist. Education -Wetlands make exce ll ent and in expen sive outdoor la bo ratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the s peciali ze d habitat of wetlands fi r sthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems m akes them excel lent s ubjects for researc h proj ects suc h as vegetation survey s and studi es of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS P ROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 : O ur na ti o n ·s wetl a nd s h ave been p o llute d , fill e d in , pave d ove r a nd la rg e ly ig no red • s in ce E urop ea n se ttl e rs fi rs t a n ive d in N orth A m e ri ca . Swa mp s , bogs a nd m a rs hes • • we re see n as was te la nd s that w e re b es t avo id e d or fill e d to c rea te ·'p rod uc ti ve la nd .'' • • To d a y, we are beginning to recog ni ze th a t we t la nd s a re n o t wa ste la nd s; th ey a re v ital • • b ree din g habita t for w ildlife , wate r filtr a ti o n a nd storage a reas . T hey a lso a re imp o 11 a nt : to th e rec reation a l, comm e rc ia l foo d h arves t , a s w e ll as th e touris m a nd timb e r indu s - IN A GREEN • tries. Th e ir n a tura l fun cti o n s , s uc h as s to r in g flood wa te rs a nd p ro du c in g seafood , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : impo rt a nt to peo p le. But we c o ntinu e to d estro y ou r we tl a nd s at a n a lar m in g ra te to WITH AMBER : mak e w ay fo r ro a d s a nd d eve lo pme nt. Sin ce the mid -18 00 s m ore th a n ha l f th e nat io n 's AND GOLD • o ri g in a l wetl and s h ave b ee n Jos t. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS , • A w e tland is an e cosy st e m th a t h as both t errestrial and a quati c c h ara cte ri stic s. AND ROSES : Swamps , m ar s h es a nd bogs a re ty p es of wetl a nd s comm o n ly found in the Unite d PINKER THAN • DAWN : S ta tes. So m e wetl a nds a re c on sta ntl y w et , a nd som e a re we t onl y duri n g c e11 a in times AND RANKS OF : o f t h e y ea r. Th e re a re man y diffe re nt d e finitio n s of w e t la n d s, so m e sc ie ntific a nd som e LUSH YOUNG • lega l, w h ic h a ffec t wet la nd regul ation s a nd wetl a nd protection . Most d efi niti o ns • REEDS • in cl ud e three m a in ch aracte ri s t ics o f we tl a nd s: 1) prese nce o f s ur face wate r or wa ter in AND GRASSES : th e ro o t z o n e: 2) h y dri c soi ls (so il s fonn e d under w a te rlo gged c o nditions ): a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etati o n (h y dro phy tes) th a t h as a d a pte d to li v ing in wet conditi o n s. Co untless va ri a tion s WITH DRAWN • of th ese c harac te ri sti cs o ft e n m a ke it diffi c ult to d e t ermine wh e th er o r n o t a p a rti c ul ar FROM GRAVEN : a rea is a w e t la nd . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS. • During c ol o ni a l tim es, wetl a nd s were regarded a s d ark , di sm a l swampy a reas th at : e n co ura ge d di sease, o b s tru cte d ove r la nd trave l a nd res tri cte d fo o d produ c ti o n . -Theodore • We tl a nd s were v iewed a s o b s ta cl es to d eve lo p me nt -p lac es th a t mu st b e dra in e d . As Goodridg e Roberts : For m o re in formation , co ntact : Save Our Streams • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 707 Conservati on Lane • Gaithersburg, MD : 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) S48-0 1 50 • (800) BUG -IWLA : E-mai l : sos @iwla.o r g • Webs i te: www.i w la .o r g : soc ie t y beca m e awar e o f th e wea lth of b e n e fit s w e tl a nd s o ffer, v iews a b o ut we tl a n d s c h a n ge d con s id e rab ly. Pe opl e b egan to rea li z e that wetland s h ave b o th eco lo g ic a l an d eco n o mi c imp o rt a nc e . Con se rvin g w e tl a nd s offe rs m a ny b e n e fit s, in c lud in g : Wi ldlife Habitat -We t la nd s p rov id e s he lt er, foo d , a nd s p a w n in g a nd nes tin g s it es fo r ma n y s pec ies o f bird s , fi s h , m am m a ls , re ptil es a nd in ve rte brate s . A lth o ug h wetl a n ds make up o nl y a b o ut 5 pe rce nt of la nd in th e Un ite d States , th ey s u pp o rt a bo ut 190 a mphibi a n s pec ies a nd on e -th ird of a ll b ird s p e c ies in the c ount ry . A lm ost 43 pe rce nt of the fe d erall y li ste d threa te ne d a nd e nda n ge re d a n i m a l s pe ci es a re in som e way d e pendent o n w e t la nd s for s urv iva l. Floo d wa ter S to rage -D e p e ndin g o n th e a r e a 's top ograph y a nd loca ti o n in th e wa ter- sh e d , w e tl a nd s ca n ac t as w a te r s tora g e areas . Wetl a nd s loc ated a lo ng a r ive r a re e s pe - cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type, location , soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate storn1 energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective banier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife . Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful place s, such as natural wetlands , still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetland s firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our na tion 's wetlands have been po ll ut ed , filled in , paved over a nd la rge ly ig nored si nce Europ ea n se ttl ers fir st a 1T ived in North A m erica . Swa mp s , bogs and m ars h e s • we re see n as wastelands that were be s t avoide d or filled to create ·'productive land.'' • • Today, we are b eginning to recog ni ze th a t wet lands are not wastelands ; th ey are vita l • • breeding habitat for wildlife , water filtr a ti o n a nd storage a rea s. They also a re imp orta nt : to th e recreational , commercial food h a r ves t, as well a s the tourism a nd timber indu s- l NA GREEN • tries. Their n a tural functions, s u c h as s to rin g flood waters a nd pro ducin g seafood , are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : im portant to peo pl e. But we continue to destroy our wet la nd s at a n a larmi ng rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and d eve lopment. Since the mid -I 800 s more th a n half th e natio n 's AND GOLD • o ri g inal wetl a nds have been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS, : A wetland is an ecosystem that h as both terrestri a l and a quatic c h aracte ri s ti cs . AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, a nd some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many diffe rent definitions of wetlands, som e sc ie ntific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affec t wetland regulations a nd wet la nd protection . Most definitions • REEDS • incl ud e three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface wate r o r water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soi ls fom1 e d under waterlogged conditions); a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted t o living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often m ake it diffi c ult to determ ine wh ethe r o r not a particular FROM GRAVEN : a rea is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • • • During coloni a l times , wetlands were regarded as dark. d is mal swampy a reas that enco urage d di sease, obstructed ove rland trave l and restricted food production . Wetlands w ere viewed as obstacles to d eve lo pm ent -plac es th at mu st be drained. As soc iety beca m e a ware of th e wealth of bene fit s w etlands offer, v iews a bout wetlands c h a n ged consi d e rably. People b ega n to reali z e th a t wet la nd s h ave b oth eco logica l and • eco nomic impo1tance . Con serving w e tl ands offers many be n efits, in c luding : Fo r more information, contact: Save Our Str eams • • • • • • • • • • 707 Conservati o n Lane • • Gaithersburg, MD • 2 0878-2983 • Wi ldlife Habitat -Wet lands prov ide s he lt er, food, a nd s p aw nin g and nes tin g s it es fo r many s pec ies of b ird s , fi s h , m am mal s, reptiles and invertebrates. A lth o ug h wetlands make up only about 5 p e rc e nt of land in the Un it ed States, th ey s upp ort a b o ut 190 am phibian s p ecies and one-third of all bird s peci es in th e country. Almost 43 percent of th e fe derally li sted threaten e d and endangered a nim a l s pecies are in so me way d e pe ndent on wet lands for s urviva l. Phone: (301 J 548-01 SO • 18 oo J BU G-I W LA : Floo dwater Storage -Depending on th e area's topogra ph y a nd lo cation in th e wa ter- E-m ail: sos@ iwla.org • s h e d , wetlands ca n act as w a ter s torage areas . Wetl a nd s located along a river are es pe- Web site: www.iwla.org • • cially valued for th eir capaci ty to r etain flood water. In 1972 , the U .S . Army Corps of Engineers determined that lo ss of wetlands alo ng th e Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 milli on in annual fl ood dam age. A wetland also can act as a recharge s ite for ground water. This depen d s upon th e season a nd amount of precipitati on , as wel l as th e wetla nd 's type, location , so il s and relationship to the wate r table. Ero sion Co ntrol -Coastal wetlands shje ld coastlines a nd di ss ipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave act io n . In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused $2 0 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force, it cost only 2.5 billion to re pair the damages because Louisiana 's coastal wetland s pro- vided a protective ban-ie r. Wetland s also reduce channel erosion that occurs durin g flood s by storing runoff water and releasing it at a s lower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help puri fy drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted runoff from cit y streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap se di- ments , accumulate nutri ents, transform a vari ety of toxic s ub stances such as pesticides and heavy meta ls, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from s urfac e waters . Co nstructed wetlands are a highl y efficient, low-co st alternative for treating sewage . Economic B e nefi ts -Fish, shellfi sh , cranben-ies , tim- ber, wi ld rice and other comm erciall y important prod - ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially h arvested fish and s hellfi s h in the United States are wetland d e pendent durin g so me stage of their Jives. The commercial fi s hing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 an d co ntributes $152 billion annually to th e economy. Commercial huntin g of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, b eaver and muskrats contributes hun- dred s of millions to the economy eac h year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory bird s s pe nt $720 million on equipment and $576 million on tra vel. Anglers sp e nt $37.8 billion on eq uipm ent, l icenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Rec reation -Wetl a nd s provide great divers ity and beauty simpl y fo r vis ual enjoyment. They provid e e ndl ess opportunities for popul ar recreational activi- t ie s s uch as huntin g, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More th a n half of all adults across the nation hunt, fi sh, bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wi ld and bea utiful places, such as natural we tland s, sti ll ex ist. Educat io n -Wetlands make excellent a nd ine xpen sive outdoor laboratori es. Students of a ll ages can benefi t from experiencing the specialized ha bitat of wetland s firsthand . Th e complexity of wetland ecosyste m s makes them excellent subjects for research projects suc h as vegetation surveys and studie s of water quali - ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Ou r na tion 's we t la nd s have b een po llute d , fill e d in, pave d ove r a nd la rge ly ig no red • • si nce E uropea n se ttl e rs fir s t arr ive d in North A m e ri ca . Swa mp s, bogs an d ma rs h es • • we re see n as was te la nd s th a t we re bes t avo ide d or fi ll e d to c reate "pro du ct ive la nd ." • • Today, we a re beg innin g to recogn ize th at we t la nd s are no t wastela nd s ; they a re v ital • • b reedin g ha bi ta t fo r wi ldli fe , wate r filt ra ti o n a nd storage a reas. T hey also are imp orta nt : to th e rec rea ti o na l, co mm e rc ia l foo d har vest, as w e ll as th e touris m a nd timb e r indu s- IN A GREEN • tries. The ir natu ra l fu nctio ns . s uc h as s to r in g flood wate rs a nd pro du c in g seafood , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : im po rtant to peop le . B u t we continu e to d es troy our we tl a nd s at an a larmin g rate to WITH AMBER : make w ay fo r roa d s and d eve lopme nt. Since th e mi d-l 800 s m o re th an h a lf the natio n 's AND GOLD • o ri g in a l w e tl and s have been lost. • AND BLUE-• • A PL4CE OF • WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A we t land i s a n e cosys te m tha t has both terres tri al and a quati c c h a ra cte ri s tic s. AND ROSES • Swamps, m ar shes a nd b ogs a re ty pes of we tland s c o mmonl y found in th e Unit ed PINKER THAN • DAWN : Sta tes. Som e w etl a nd s a re con sta ntl y w et, and some are w et onl y during ce1ta in times AND RANKS OF : o f t h e year. There are m a ny di ffe re nt d e finiti o ns of wetland s, som e sc ie ntifi c a nd some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, w hi c h a ffec t wetl a nd regul at io ns a nd wet la nd p ro tecti o n . Most d efi niti o ns • REEDS • incl ud e three m a in c harac te r is t ics of we tl and s : 1) prese nc e of s urface wa te r o r water i n AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) h ydri c soil s (soi ls fonn e d und er waterlo gged conditi o ns); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etati o n (h ydrop hy tes) th at h as a d a pte d to li vi n g in wet conditio n s. Countl ess va r iation s WITH DRAWN • of t hese ch arac te ri sti cs o ft e n m a ke it di ffic ult to d etenn in e wh e th e r o r no t a pa rti cular FROM GRAVEN : a rea is a w etland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : Duri ng co lo ni a l t imes, w etl a nd s we re regarded a s d ark , d is m a l swampy a reas that : e nco ura ge d di sease, o bs tru c ted ove rl a nd trave l a nd res tri cted foo d prod ucti o n . -Theodore • Wetl a nd s were v iewed as o bs tacles to d eve lo p ment -plac es th at mu s t be d ra in ed . As Goodridge Roberts : soc iet y beca me awa re of th e wea lth of benefits w e tl a nds o ffer, views a bo ut wet la nds Fo r more information, contact : Save Our Strea m s • • ch a nge d cons id era bl y. Peo ple bega n to rea li ze th at wetl and s have both eco log ica l and • • eco no mi c impo rt a nce . Con serv in g w e tla nds o ffe rs m a ny bene fi ts, i nc lud ing: • • • • Wi ldl (/e H ab i ta t -We tl a nd s p rov id e s h e lt er, food , a nd s paw nin g and nes tin g s it es fo r : ma ny s pec ies of bird s , fi s h , m a mm a ls , rept iles a nd inve rte bra tes . A lth o ug h we tl ands : make up o nl y a bo ut 5 pe rcent of la nd in the U ni te d Sta tes , th ey s upp o rt a bo ut 190 • a mphibian s pec ies and o ne-third o f a ll bi rd s peci es in th e country. Almost 4 3 pe rce nt • 707 Conservati on Lane • of th e fed era ll y li sted threate ned a nd e nd a nge red a ni mal s pecies are in so m e way • Gaithersburg, MD • d e pe nd ent o n we tl and s for s urv iva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • (800l BUG -IWLA • Floo d wat er S tora ge -D e pe nding o n th e area's top ogra phy a nd loca ti o n in th e wa ter-• E-mail: sos @iwl a .org • she d , w etl and s ca n act as wate r sto rage a reas. Wetl a nd s loc ate d a lon g a r ive r are es pe - Webs i te: www.iwla .org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location , soi ls a nd re lationship to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shjeld coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baiTier. Wetlands also reduce cha1rnel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nut1ients, transform a variety of toxic substa11ces such as pesticides a11d heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and cantributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visua l enjoyment. They provide end less opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wi ldlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that \Vild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, still ex ist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experi encing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wet land ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • O ur n ation 's we tl a nd s h ave b een pol l ute d , fill e d in , p ave d o ve r a nd la rg e ly ig no red • • s ince Eu ro pean s e ttl e rs fir s t a1Tive d in N orth A m e ri ca . Swa mp s, bogs a nd m a rs h es • • were see n a s waste la nd s th a t were be s t avoide d or fi ll e d to crea te ·'p rod u c ti ve la n d ." • • To d ay, w e a re beginnin g to recogni ze th a t we t la nd s a re no t w aste la nd s; they a re vita l • • b reeding ha bi ta t for wildlife . w a te r fi ltrati o n a nd storage a re a s . T h ey a lso a re impo rt a nt : to th e recreatio n a l, comm e rc ia l foo d harve s t, as w e ll a s th e to uri sm a nd timbe r indu s- IN A GREEN • tries. Th ei r n a tu ra l fun c t io ns. s uc h as s to r ing fl o od wa te rs a nd pro du c in g seafood , are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : im p orta nt to p eo p le. But w e continu e to d es tro y our wetla nd s at a n a la rmin g ra te to WITH AMBER : m ake wa y fo r ro a d s a nd d eve lopm e nt. S ince th e mid-1 800 s m o re th a n h a lf th e nat io n 's AND GOLD • orig ina l w e tl a nd s h ave b ee n lo st. • AND BLUE -• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is a n ecosyste m that h as both te rres tri a l a nd a quatic c h aracte r is ti cs. AND ROSES • Swamp s , m a r s hes a nd bogs are ty p es of wetlands commonly fo und in th e Unite d PINKER THAN • DAWN : Sta tes . Som e wet lands a re c on st a ntl y w e t , a nd som e a re we t onl y duri n g ce1ta in times AND RANKS OF : o f th e yea r. The re a re man y diffe re n t d e finitio ns of we tl a n d s. so m e sc ie ntific a nd some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, w hi c h a ffec t w e tl a nd regul a tion s a nd wet land p rotec ti o n . Most d efi nition s • REEDS • incl ud e three m a in c h a ra cte ri st ics of wetla nd s: 1) presen ce o f surface wa te r o r water in AND GRASSES : the ro o t z o ne; 2) h y dric s oil s (soil s form e d under waterl ogged conditi o ns ); a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hy d ro ph y tes) that has a dapte d to li v in g in wet c ondition s. Countle ss va ri at io n s WITH DRAWN • of these ch arac te ri sti cs o ft e n m a ke it diffi c ult to d e te rmin e wh e th e r o r n o t a pa rti c u la r FROM GRAVEN : a r ea is a wetl a nd . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS. • During col o ni a l tim es, wetl a nd s w e re regard e d a s d ark , di sm a l swam py a reas th a t : e n co ura ge d di sease, o b s tru c te d overl a nd t rave l a nd re s tri c te d foo d produ cti o n . -Theodore • We t la nd s were v iewed a s obs tac les to d eve lo p me nt -pl aces th a t mu st b e d ra in e d . As Goodridge Roberts : soc ie ty b eca m e a wa re o f th e wea lt h of be ne fit s w e tl a nd s offer, v iews a b o ut we t la nd s • • c h a nged co n s id e rabl y . P eo pl e b ega n to rea li ze th a t wetl a nd s h ave b oth ecolog ica l a nd • • eco no mic imp o 1tan ce. C onserv ing w e t la nds offe rs m any be n efits , i nc luding: • • • • Wi ldlife H abita t -We tland s prov id e s h e lt e r, foo d , a nd s pa w n in g a nd nes tin g s it es fo r : ma n y s pec ies o f bird s , fi s h , m a mma ls , rep ti les a nd in ve rt e b ra tes. A lth o ug h we tl a nd s Fo r more in formation, : make up o nl y a b o ut 5 pe rcent of land in th e United States , th ey s upp o rt a b o ut 190 co ntact: Save Our Streams : a mphibian s pec ies a nd on e -third of all b ird s pe ci es in th e c oun t ry . A lm ost 4 3 pe rce nt 707 Conservation Lane • o f th e fe de ra ll y liste d thre at e ne d and e nd a nge red anim a l s peci es a re in so m e way • Gaithersburg, MD • d e pe n dent on w e t la nd s for s urv iv a l. 2087 8 -2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • (8001 BUG -IWLA : Floo d wat er S torage -Depe nding on the a rea's topogra ph y a nd locati o n in th e wa ter- E-mail : sos @i wla .org • s he d , wetl a nd s can ac t as wat e r s tora ge a re a s . We tl a nd s loca te d a long a rive r a re es pe - Websi te: www.i wla .org : cially va lu e d for th e ir ca pacity to reta in flood water. In 1972 , th e U .S. Am1y Corps of Engineers dete rmin ed that lo ss of wetlands along the Charles Ri ver nea r Boston would hav e ca used $17 million in annual flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depend s upon th e season and amount of precipitati on , as well as th e wetland 's ty pe , location, so il s and relationship to the wate r table. Erosion Co ntro l -Coastal wetlands shie ld coastlines and di ss ip ate stom1 energy. They act as buffers agai nst wind , rain a nd wave acti on. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the d eve loped coasts of Florid a. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force, it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages becau se Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective b anie r. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion th at occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releas ing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic s ub stances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from s urface waters. Constructed wetlands are a hi ghly efficient, low-co st alternative for treating sewage. Economic B en efi ts -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim - ber, wild rice and other cornn1ercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfi sh in the United States ar e wetland dep e nde nt durin g some stage of their lives . The commercial fi shin g industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $I 52 bill io n ann ua ll y to th e economy:· Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gator s , geese , beaver and mu skrats co ntribute s hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetland s also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of mi gra - tory bird s s pent $720 million on equi pment and $576 million on travel. Ang le r s spent $37 .8 billion o n eq uipm ent, .li censes, travel and lodging in the same year. Recrea tion -Wetlands provide great di ve r si ty and beauty simpl y fo r vis ual enjoyment. They provide en dl ess opportunities for popul ar recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hi k- ing. More th an half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wi ldlife . Even people who may never v is it a wetland may be happy just knowing th at wil d and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , sti ll ex ist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent a nd inexpensive outdoor labo ratories . Students of a ll ages can benefit from experiencing the s peci a li zed habitat of wetla nd s firsthand . The comp lex ity of wetland ecosyste m s m akes them excellen t s ubjects for resea rch proj ects such as vegetation su rveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our na tion 's wetlands have b een po ll uted , filled in , paved over a nd largely ignored • • since E uropea n settl e rs fir s t a1Tive d in North A m eric a . Swa mps , bogs and mars h es • • were seen as wastelands that were be s t avo id e d or fi li ed to create ·'produc ti ve land ." • • Today, we a re b eg inning to recogni ze th a t wetla n d s are not wa ste la nd s ; th ey a re vita l • • breeding habitat for wildlife , water filtr a ti o n a nd storage a rea s . They a lso are important : to th e recreation a l, commercial foo d harvest, as w e ll as th e touri s m a nd timbe r indus- IN A GREEN • tries . The ir natural functi o n s, such as s to rin g flood waters a nd producing seafood , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to p eople. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and d eve lopment. Since the mid -18 00s m ore than ha lf the n a tion 's AND GOLD : o ri g inal wetlands have b ee n lo st. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , • A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES : Swamps, mars hes and bogs are types of we tlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, a nd some are wet onl y durin g certain tim es AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are man y diffe re n t definitions of wetland s , som e sci e ntific and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affect wetland regulation s and wetland protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: I) presence of surface wa ter o r water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hy dric soils (so ils form e d under waterlogged conditions): and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has a dapte d to li v ing in wet conditions . Countle ss variations WITH DRAWN • of the se characteristics often m ake it diffi c ult to determ in e whe th e r or not a pa rticul ar FROM GRAVEN : a rea is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE: WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS . • During colonial times, wetlands were regarded as dark, di s m a l swampy areas th at : e ncoura ged disease, obstructed ove rland trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wet lands were viewed as obstacles to d eve lo pment -places th at mu st be drain e d . As Goodridge Roberts : soc iety beca me aware of th e wealth of b ene fits wetl a nd s offer, v iews abo ut wetlands • • cha nged considerably. P eo pl e b ega n to reali z e that wetla nd s ha ve b oth eco lo g ic a l and • • eco nomic impo11ance . Conserving wetlands offers many b en efi ts, including: • • • • Wildl ife Habitat -Wet lands provi de s h e lter, food, and s p aw n in g a nd nestin g s it es for : many s peci es of bird s, fi s h , m a mma ls , rept il es and invertebrates. A lth ough wetlands For more information, : make up only a b o ut 5 percent of la nd in the Unit ed States , th ey s upport a b o ut 190 contact: Save our Streams : a mphibian spec ie s and one-third of al 1 bird s pecie s in the country. Almost 43 percent 707 Conservati on Lane • of the federally li sted threatene d and endangered animal s peci es a re in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • d e pendent on wet lands fo r s urv iva l. 2087 8-2983 • Pho n e : (301 ) 548-0 1 SO • 18001 BUG -I WLA • Floodwater Storage -Depending on th e area's top ogra ph y and location in th e water-• E-m ail: sos @i w l a .org • s h e d , wetlands can act as water s torage areas. Wetland s located a lon g a river are espe- Web si te : www.iwl a .o r g : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location, soils and relationship to the water table . Ero s ion Control -Coas tal wetlands shi e ld coa stline s and dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers again st wind , rain and wave ac tion. Jn 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the de veloped coa sts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetland s pro- vided a protective baITier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing nmoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polJuted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nu trients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and hea\ry metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranbeITies , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States a re wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as all i- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the na1ion hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , s ti II exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetland s firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali - ty or wildlife . August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our nation's v.:et lands h ave been polluted, filled in , paved over and largely ignored • • since European settlers first arrived in North America. Swamps, bogs and marshes • • were seen as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create ·'productive land." • • Today, we are beginning to recognize that wetland s are not wastelands; they are vital : breeding habitat for wild life, water filtration and storage areas. They also are important : to the recreational , commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries . Their natural functions, such as storing flood waters and producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we continu e to destroy our wetla nd s at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-I 800s more than half the nation's AND GOLD • original wetlands h ave been lost. • AND BLUE-• • -. A PLACE OF • WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PIN~~~TNHAN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitions of wetla nd s, some sc ientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, w hi ch affect wetland regulations and wetland protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hydric soils (soils forn1ed under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS. • • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • During colonia l times, wetlands were regarded as dark, dismal swampy areas that encouraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production . Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places that must be drained. As society b ecame aware of the wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wetlands • changed considerably. People began to realize that wetlands have both ecological and • • economic impo1tance. Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wild l ife Habitat -Wetlands provide s helter, food, and spaw nin g and nesting sites for : many species of birds, fish, mammals , reptiles and invertebrates . Although wet lands For more information, : make up only about 5 percent of land in the Un it ed States, they support about 190 contact: Save Our Streams : amphibian species and one-third of all bird species in the country. Almost 43 percent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatened and endangered animal species are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for survival. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • 18001 BUG-IWLA : Floodwater Storage -Depending on the area's topography and location in the water- E-mail: sos@iwla.org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetlands lo cated alo ng a river are espe- Website: www.iwla.org : cially valued for their capac ity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $I 7 million in annua l flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge s it e for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location , soi ls and rel ationship to the w ater tab le. Erosion Control -Coastal wet lands s hi e ld coast lin es and dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers again st wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hunicane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the de veloped coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baIT ier. Wetlands also reduce channe l erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted rw10ff from city streets , building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi - ments , accumulate nu trients, transfo1m a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish , shellfish, cranbeITies , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested fro m wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fi s h and she llfi sh in the United States a re wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes· $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Ang lers spent $37 .8 billion on equip m ent, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for vi s ual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nation hunt , fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that vvild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , s till exist. Edu catio n -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor labo ratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology O ur na ti o n 's we tl a nd s h ave been p o llute d , fi ll e d in . pave d over a nd la rge ly ig no red si nce E urop ea n settl ers fir st a rri ve d in N orth A m e ri ca. Sv,;a mp s , b ogs a nd m a r s hes we re see n as w as te la nd s that w e re b est avo ide d or fill e d to c rea te ·'produ c ti ve land ." • • To d ay, we a re b eginnin g t o recog ni z e th a t we tl a nd s a re no t wasteland s; they a re vita l • • b reedin g ha bita t for w ildlife. wate r filtrati o n a nd s torage a reas. T hey a lso a re imp o rt a nt : t o th e rec reati o na l, co mm e rci a l foo d harvest. as w e ll as th e to uri s m a nd timb e r indu s - p:~c~ ~=~~~D : t r ies. Th e ir na tu ra l fun c tion s, s uc h as stor in g flood wa te rs a nd p ro du c in g seafo o d , are THROUGH : importa nt to peo pl e. But w e co ntinue to destro y our wetla nd s at a n a la rmin g rate to WITH AMBER : m a k e way fo r roa d s a nd d eve lo p m e nt. Since th e mi d -18 00 s m o re tha n h a lf the na ti o n 's AND GOLD : o ri g in a l w e tl a nd s h ave b ee n lo st. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS , : A wetland is an e cosystem th a t h as both te rrestrial a n d a qu a ti c c haracte r is tic s. AND ROSES • Swamp s, m ars h es a nd bogs are t y pes of we tl a nd s conunonl y found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : St a t es . So m e wetl a nds a re c onst a ntly w e t , a nd som e are w e t onl y durin g ce1ta in times AND RANKS OF : of the y ea r. Th e re are many diffe re nt d e finition s of we tland s. som e sci e ntific and som e LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which a ffec t wetl a nd regul a tion s a nd wetl a nd prot e cti o n . M os t de fin iti o n s • REEDS • in c lud e three m a in c h a ract e ri st ics o f w e tl a nd s: 1) prese nce of surface wate r o r wa te r in AND GRASSES : the root zo ne; 2 ) hy dric soil s (soil s form e d under w aterlo gged co nditions ); a nd 3) v eg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (h y drophytes) th a t h as ada pted to li v ing in wet c onditio n s . Countl ess va ri a tion s WITH DRAWN • of th ese c ha ra c t e ri sti cs ofte n m a ke it diffi c ult to de t e rmin e wh e th e r o r no t a pa rti c ul a r FROM GRAVEN : a r ea is a w e tland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • During co lo ni a l tim es, w e tl a nd s were regard e d as dark . di sm a l swampy a reas th a t e n c ouraged di sease, ob stru c te d overl a nd trave l a nd res tri c te d foo d produ ction . We t la nd s we re v ie w e d a s o b sta cl es to deve lo pm e nt -pl aces th a t mus t b e drain e d. As soc ie t y beca m e awa re o f th e wea lth o f be n e fit s w e tl ands o ffe r, v iews abo ut we tl an d s • c h a nged co n s id e rabl y. Pe ople b egan to rea li ze th a t wetl a nd s have b o th ecologica l a nd • • eco no mi c imp o 1t a nc e. C on se rv in g w e tl a nd s o ffe rs m a ny b e ne fi ts, in c luding: • • • • Wildlife H ab ita t -We tland s prov id e s h e lte r. food , a nd s pawnin g and nes tin g s it es fo r : m a ny s p ecies o f bird s , fi s h , m a mm a ls , re ptil es a nd in ve rte b ra tes. A lth o u g h we tl a nd s Fo r more info rmation, : m ake up o nl y a bout 5 pe rce nt of land in th e U nite d Sta tes , th ey s upport a b o ut 190 co ntac t: Save our Streams : a mphibian s p ec ies a nd one-third of all bird s pe ci es in the country. Almos t 43 pe rcent 707 Conservation Lane • o f the fe d era ll y li ste d thre ate ne d a nd e nd a n ge re d a nim a l s pe ci es a re in som e way • Gaithersburg, MD • d e p e nd e nt o n w e tl a nd s for s urv ival. 20878-2983 • Phone: (3 01) 548-0150 • (8 ooJ BUG -IWL A : F loo d wat er S torage -Depending on the a rea's top ogra phy a nd lo c a ti o n in th e w a ter- E-mail : sos@iwla.org • s he d , w e tl a nd s c an a ct a s wate r s torage a reas . Wetl a nd s loc a t e d a lo ng a ri ve r a re espe - Website: www.i w la.org • • cially valued for thei r capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S. Am1y Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a rec ha rge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location, so ils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shjeJd coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to re pair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filte1ing polluted rw1o ff from city streets , building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranbeJTies , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States a re wetland depend ent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the· economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on tra vel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licen ses, travel and lodging in the same year. R ecrea tion -Wetlands provide great divers ity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish, bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may ne ver visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the s pecialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our n a tion 's wetlands have b ee n po ll ut ed. filled in , paved over a nd larg e ly ig nored • • since E urop ea n settl ers fir st anived in North A m e r ica . Swamps. bogs a nd m ars he s • • were seen as wastelands that were b est avoide d or filled t o create ·'produc ti ve land:' • • To day, we a re b eg inning to recogni ze that we t lands a re not wastelands ; th ey are vita l : breeding habitat for wildlife , water filtrati on and storage a rea s. They also a re important : to th e recre atio na l, commercial foo d harvest, as well as the touri sm and timber indus- IN A GREEN • tries . Their na tural function s, s uc h as s toring flood waters a nd producing seafood , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to peo pl e. But we co ntinu e to destroy our wetland s at a n a laimi ng rate t o WITH AMBER : make way for roads and d eve lopment. Since the mid-18 00 s m ore than half th e n a ti o n 's AND GOLD : original wetl a nd s have been lost. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, : A wetland is an ecosystem tha t h as both terrestrial a nd aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonl y found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constant ly wet, a nd some are wet only durin g ce11ain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definitions of wetland s . so m e sc ie ntific and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affec t wetland regul a tion s and wet land protection. Most d efi nition s • REEDS • include three main c haracte ri stics of wetlands: I ) prese n ce of surface wa ter or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) h y dric so il s (so il s formed under waterlogged cond itions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that ha s adapted to living in wet conditions . Countles s variations WITH DRAWN • of the se characte ri stic s often m a ke it diffi c ult to determine whether or n o t a part ic ul ar FROM GRAVEN : a rea i s a wetland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : During colonial tim es, wetlands were regarded as dark, di sm a l swampy a reas th at : enco uraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restric t e d food production. -Theodore • Wet lands were viewed as obstacles to deve lo pm e nt -places th at must be drain ed. As Goodridge Roberts : soc iety became aware of th e wealth of bene fits w etlan d s offer, v iews a bout wetlands For more information, co nta ct: Sav e Our Strea m s 707 Conservation Lane Gaithersburg, MD 2 0878-2983 • • c h a n ged considerably. Peo pl e began to rea li z e that we tl a nd s have both ecologica l and • • eco nomic impo11ance. Con serving wetlands offers many b e n efits, in c ludin g: • • • • Wi ld l ife Habita t -Wetl a nd s provide s h e lt e r, food, a nd s p a wnin g a nd nest in g s ites for : many s pec ies of bird s, fi s h , m am ma ls , rept il es and invertebrates . Although wet la nd s : make up only a bout 5 percent of land in the U nited States , th ey su pp ort a bout 190 • amphibian s pecies a nd one-third of all bird s peci es in th e country. Almost 43 pe rcent • • of the federall y li sted thre a t e ned and e nd a ngered anima l species a re in som e way • • dependent on wetlands for s urviva l. • Phon e: (301) 548-0 150 • 18001 BUG -IWLA • Floodwater Storage -Depe ndin g on th e area's top ogra ph y and lo cation in the water-• E-mail : sos @i wla .o r g • sh e d , wetl a nd s can act as water storage a reas. Wetl ands located along a river are es pe- Website: www.i wla .org • • cially valued for th e ir capac ity to r etain flood wat er. In 1972 , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determin ed that loss of wetlands alon g the Charles River near Boston would ha ve caused $17 million in annual flood dama ge . A wetland a lso can act as a recharge s it e for g round water. Thi s depends upon th e season and amount of precipitation , as well as th e we t la nd 's type , locati on , so il s and relationship to the water table. Ero sion Con trol -Coastal wetlands sh.ie ld coastlines and di ss ip ate s tom1 energy. Th ey act as buffers aga in st wind , rain a nd wave actio n. [n 199 2, Hurricane Andrew caused $2 0 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the sa me force , it cost only 2.5 billi on to re pair th e damages bec a u se Lo ui siana 's coastal wetland s pro- vided a protective ba1Tier. Wetland s also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and rel eas ing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from c ity streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap se di- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a va ri ety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy m etals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from s urfac e waters . Constructed wetlands are a highl y efficient, low-co st a lternative for treatin g sewage . Economic B e nefi ts -Fish , s hellfish , cranberries, tim- ber, wi ld rice and other cornn1ercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands . More than 95 pe r - cent of the commercially harvested fi sh a nd s hellfi s h in the United States are wetland d e pendent durin g some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry prov ides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 an d contributes $152 billion annually to th e economy. Cornn1ercial hunting of wetland anima ls s uch as a lli - gators , geese , b eave r and mus kra ts contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of mi gra- tory bird s spent $720 million on equi pment a nd $576 million on tr avel. Anglers s pe nt $37 .8 billion o n equipment, licenses , travel and lod gi ng in th e same year. R ecreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty si mpl y fo r vis ual enjoyment. They provide endl ess opportunities for popul ar recreational acti vi- ties s uch as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and h ik- ing . More than half of all adults across the nati on hunt, fi sh , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Eve n people who m ay never visit a wetland m ay be happy just knowing that wi ld and bea utiful places, s uch as natura l wetlands , sti ll ex ist. Educa tion -Wetland s make excellent and inex pensive outdoor laboratori es . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the s peci a li zed habitat of wet la nd s firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosyste m s makes them excel le nt s ubje cts for research projects s uch as vegetation surveys and studi es of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation 's wetla nd s h ave bee n polluted , fi ll e d in , paved over a nd large ly ignored si nce E urop ea n se ttl ers fir s t arrive d in North America . Swamps, bo gs and m a rs hes • were see n as waste lands that were best avoide d or fill e d to crea te "productive la nd.'' • • Today, we are beginn ing to recognize that wetlands are not wastelands ; th ey are vital • • breedin g habitat for wild l ife , water filtration a nd s torage areas. They also a re import a nt : to the recreationa l, comm ercia l foo d harvest, as well as the tourism and timber ind us- 1 NA GREEN • PLACE LANCED : THROUGH • • WITH AMBER • tries. Their natural functio n s, such as storing flood waters a nd producin g seafood, are im p ortant to peo ple. But we continu e to destroy our wetlands at an alanni ng rate to make way for roads and d evelopme nt. Since the mid -l 800s more than ha lf the nation 's AND GOLD : original wetl ands have been Jost. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, : A wetland is an ec osystem tha t has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics . AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly fow1d in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wet lands are constantly wet, a nd some are wet only durin g ce1tain time s AND RANKS OF : of th e year. There a re many diffe r e nt definition s of wetland s, some sc ientific a nd some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, w hi ch affect wetland regulations and wetland protec ti on . Most d efi nition s • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of s urface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone: 2) h ydric so il s (soils formed under waterlogged conditi ons); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that h as adap ted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these c harac teristics often make it di fficu lt to determine wh e ther or not a pa rti cular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • • STANDS . • • • -Theodore • Goodridge koberts : • During colonia l times, wetl ands were r egarded as dark, di s mal swampy a rea s th at enco ura ged di sease, obstru cted ove rl a nd trave l a nd restricted food produ ction . Wet la nd s were viewed as obstacles to d eve lop m ent -place s th a t mu s t be drain e d . As soc iety beca m e aware of the wea lth of b e nefi ts w e tl ands offer, v iews a bout wetlands • c hanged cons id erably. Peo pl e began to reali ze th a t wetlands have both eco logica l an d • • economic impo1ta nce . Conserving wetland s offers many benefits , includ in g: • • • • Wild l!fe Habitat -Wetlands provide s h e lter, food, and s pawnin g a nd nestin g s it es for : many species of bird s , fish , mamma ls , reptil es and inv e rtebrate s. A lth o ug h w e t land s Fo r more information, : make up only about 5 percent of la nd in the United States , th ey s upport about 190 contact: save our Streams : am phibi an spec ies a nd o ne-third of all bird spec ies in the country. A lm ost 43 pe rcent 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted threatened and endangere d anima l species are in s ome way • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on we tl ands for s urviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 so • (8 ooJ BUG-IWLA : Floodwate r Storage -Depending on th e a rea's topograph y a nd location in the water- E-mail : sos @iwla.org • s hed, wetlands ca n act as water storage areas. Wetl ands lo cated along a river are espe- Website: www.iwla.org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S . Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annua l flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location , soils and re lationship to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wet lands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs du1ing floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate . Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heary metals , and can remove potentially dangerous m icro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranbeJTies , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 mi ll ion jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $ l 52 bi ll ion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Ang lers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt , fish, bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , stil l exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wild life. Augu st 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • Our nation's wetlands hav e b een po ll uted . fill e d in , paved over and la rge ly ig nored • • • si nce Europ ea n se ttl ers fir st a JTi ve d in North A meri ca . Swamp s , bogs and m ars h es • were see n as was te la nd s that were be s t avoided or filled to create ·'produ ctive la nd ." • • Today, we a re beginning to rec ogni ze that wetlands are not wastelands ; they are v it al • • breeding habitat for wi ldlife , water fi ltrati o n a nd storage areas . T hey also are important : to th e recreational, co mm e rcial food harvest, as well as the touri s m and timber indus- P:.:(~ ~=~~~D : tries. Their n a tura l function s, s uc h as storin g flood waters and producing seafood , are THROUGH : important to people . But w e continue to d es troy our wetland s at a n almming rat e to WITH AMBER : make wa y for roads a nd d eve lopment. Since the mid-1 80 0 s more than h a lf the nati o n 's AND GOLD • orig inal wetl an d s have been lost. • AND BLUE -• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that ha s both te rres trial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, mars he s and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet , and some are wet onl y durin g ce11ain times AND RANKS OF: of the yea r. T here are many different definition s of wetlands, so me sci entific and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affec t wetland regulations and wetland p ro tection . Most defin ition s • REEDS • include three main characteri stic s of wetlands: 1) prese nce of su rface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) h y dric so il s (soils formed under waterlogged conditions); a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that h as adapted to living in wet conditions. Countl ess variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determi ne wh et he r or n o t a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a w e tland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? THE STILL BLUE HERON STANDS . • • : During colonial time s, wetlands were regard e d as d ark. di smal swampy areas that : enco ura ged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production . -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to d eve lo pment -places th at must b e drained . As Goodridge Roberts : soc ie ty be ca m e a ware of the w ea lth of bene fit s w e tl ands offer, views a bout wetlands • • chan ge d considerably. People b ega n to rea li ze that wetlands ha ve both ecologica l and • • eco nomi c impo11ance. Con serving wetland s offers many b e nefits, in c ludin g: For more information, co ntact : Save Our St r eams • • • • • • • • • • 707 Conservati o n Lane • Ga i thersburg, M D : 2087 8 -298 3 • Wi/dl[fe Habita t -Wetlands provid e s helter, food, a nd spaw nin g a nd nes tin g s it es fo r m a ny s pec ies of bird s, fis h , mamma ls , reptil es a n d in ve rte brates. Although wetlands make up only about 5 percent of la nd in the U nited States, th ey s upport about 190 amphibian species and one-third of all bird s pecie s in the country. Almost 43 perc e nt of the federally li sted threat e n ed and endangered animal s peci es a re in some way d epend e nt on wet lands for s urviva l. Ph one: (30 1) 548 -01 SO • 1800) BU G-I W LA : Floodwater S tora ge -Depending on the a r ea's topogra phy and location in the water- E-m ail: so s@ iwla.or g • s h e d , wetlands ca n act as water storage are as. Wetland s located a long a river are es pe- Website: www.i wl a.org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Thjs depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type , location , soils and re la tionship to the water table . Erosion Control -Coastal wet lands shield coastlines and dissipate storm energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hunicane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coa st with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective ban-ier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally fiJtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and he-avy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro -organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs natiomvide 2 and contributes $152 bi ll ion annua-lly to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 bil lion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Rec reation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt , fish. bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even peop le who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , such as natural wetlands, s till exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratori es. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali - ty or wildlife. Augu st 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation's wetlands have been polluted , filled in , paved over and large ly ig nored since European settlers first anived in North America . Swamps, bo gs and mars hes • were seen as wastelands that were be s t avoided or filled to crea t e ·'productive land ." • • Today, we are beginning to recogni z e that wet lands are not wastelands ; they are vital • • breeding habitat for wildlife, water filtration a nd storage areas. They also are imp o rtant : to the recreationa l, commercial food harvest, as well as the tourism and timber indu s - IN A GREEN • tries. Their natural function s , such as storing flood waters and producing seafood, a re PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wet la nd s at an alarming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and d evelopme nt. Since the mid-1800s more than half the n ation's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, : A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands conunonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many different definition s of wetlands , some sc ientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affect wetland regulations a nd wetland protection . Most definitions • REEDS • include three main characteri s tic s of wetlands: 1) prese nce of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric soi ls (soils fo1med under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to living in wet conditions. Countless variations WITHDRAWN • of these characteri stics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : During colonia l times, wetland s were regarded as dark, di smal swampy areas that : encouraged disea se, obstructed ove rl and travel and re s tricted food production . -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to deve lopment -places that must be drained . As Goodridge Roberts : Fo r more information, contact: Save Our Streams society becam e aware of th e wea Ith of ben e fits wetland s offer, views about wetland s • changed cons iderably. People b ega n to re a li ze that wetlands have both ecological a nd • • • economic impo 1tance. Conserving wetland s offers many benefits, including: • • • • Wildlife H abitat -Wetlands provide she lte r, food, and spaw nin g a nd n esti ng s it es for : many s pecie s of birds , fi s h , mammals. reptiles and invertebrates. A lth ough wetlands : make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States, they s upport about 190 • amphibian species and one-third of all bird species in the country. Almost 43 percent • 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li s ted threatened and endange red animal species are in some \Vay • Gaithersburg, MD • dependent on wetlands for surviva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • 18 ooJ BUG-IWLA : Floodwater S torage -Depending on the area's top ograph y a nd loc ation in the water- E-mail: sos@iwla.org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetl ands located along a river are espe- Website: www.iwla.org : cia ll y va lu ed for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wet lands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage . A wetland also can act as a recharge s ite for ground water. This depends upon the seas on and amount of precipitation , as well as the wet land 's type , location, soi ls and relationship to th e water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shjeld coast lin es and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers aga in st wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the deve loped coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coa sta l wet lands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands a lso reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw10ff from city streets, building and agricul tural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and hea\iy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a hi g hl y efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfi sh, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fi s h and she llfi sh in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland anima ls such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands a lso contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Angle rs spent $37.8 billion on eq uipm e nt, licenses , trav e l and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreationa l activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing . More th an half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird -watch or photograph wi ldl ife . Even people w ho may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , s uch as natural wet lands, still ex ist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the spec ialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The comp lex ity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects suc h as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1 999 : Our na tion 's wetlands have b een pollute d , filled in , paved over a nd la rge ly ig nored • since Europ ea n se ttl e rs fir s t a rri ve d in North A meri ca. Swa mp s , bogs and m a rs he s • • we re see n as wastelands that were be st avoide d or filled to create ·'p rod uc ti ve land ." • • Today, we are b eg inning to recogni ze that wet lands are not wa ste la nd s; th ey are v it a l • • breeding habita t for wildlife , wate r filtrati o n and storage areas. They also a re imp orta nt : to the recreational , commercial food harvest, as well as th e touri s m a nd timber indus- 1 NA GREEN • PLACE LANCED : THROUGH • • WITH AMBER • AND GOLD : AND BLUE -• tries . Th ei r n a tural function s , s uc h as storin g flood wa te rs and producin g seafood , are important to peo ple . But we continue to d estroy our wetlands at a n alarming rate to make way for roads and development. Since the mid-I 800 s more than ha lf the n atio n 's orig in a l wetl and s have been lo st. A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS , • A wetland is an ecosystem that has both te rres trial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES : Swamps, mars hes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are consta ntly wet, and some are wet only durin g certain time s AND RAN KS 0 F : of the year. There are ma ny different definitio n s of wetlands, so me sc ie nti fie and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affect wetla nd regu lations and wetland protect ion. Mo st d efi nition s • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: I) prese nc e of surface wa ter or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone ; 2) hydric soils (so il s fom1ed under w aterlogged co nditions): and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that h as adapted to li v ing in wet conditions. Countles s variations WITH DRAWN • of th ese characteristics often make it diffi c ult to determi ne wheth e r or not a pa rti c ul ar FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • • STANDS . • During colonial times, wetland s were regarded as d ark, di smal swampy areas th at : enco urage d disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as ob stac le s to d eve lopment -places th at mu st be drain e d . As Goodridge Roberts : For more information, contact: Save Our Streams 707 Conservation Lane Gaithersburg, MD 20878-2983 • soc iety beca m e a ware of t he wealth of b e ne fits wetl a nd s offer, views a bo ut wetlands • cha n ge d considerably. People b egan to rea lize that wetlands h ave both ecolo gica l and • • economic importance. Conserving wetland s offers m a ny benefits, including: • • • • Wildl ife Habitat -Wet la nd s prov ide she lte r, foo d , and s pawn ing and nes tin g s it es for : many s peci es of birds , fi s h , m a mma ls, rep til es and in verte brate s . A lth o ug h wetland s : make up only a bout 5 percent of land in the United States , th ey s upp ort a bout 190 • amphibian s p ec ie s and one-third of all bird s pecies in the country. A lm ost 43 pe rce nt • • of the federally listed threatened and e n d a ngered anima l s peci es are in so me way • • d epe n dent on w e t lands for s urviva l. • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • 1800i BUG -IWLA : Floodwater S to rage -Depending on t he a r ea's topo gra ph y and location in th e water- E-mail : sos @iwl a.org • s he d , wetlands can act as water storage areas. Wetland s located along a ri ve r are es pe- Website: www.iwla.org • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U .S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Thi s depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as th e wetland 's type , location, soils and relationship to the water table . Ero s ion Control -Coastal wetland s shi e ld coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act a s buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetlands also reduce channel eras.ion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Wat er Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw10ff from city streets , building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage . Economic B e nefits -Fish , shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their live s. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licen ses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for v i s ual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-wa tc h or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetland s, s till exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetland s fir sthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • O ur na t io n 's w e tl a nd s h ave been p o ll ut e d , fi lle d in , p ave d ove r a nd la rge ly ig n o re d • • since E urop ea n se ttl e rs fir st a ni ve d in North A m e ri ca. Swamp s , bogs and m a rs h es • • we re see n as waste la nd s th a t we re b es t avoide d o r fi l led to create ·'p ro du c ti ve la n d." • • To da y, w e a re beg innin g t o recogni ze t ha t we tla nd s a re n o t w as teland s; they a re v it a l • • b reed in g ha bi ta t fo r wi ld l ife , wate r filtrati o n a nd s to rage a reas. T hey a lso a re impo rta nt : t o th e re creatio n a l, c o mm e rc ia l foo d harvest, as w e ll as th e to uris m a nd timbe r indu s- IN A GREEN • tr ies. Th e ir nat ura l fun c t io ns, s uc h as s to r in g fl o od wa ters a nd p rodu c in g seafood , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : imp o rta nt to p e ople . But we co nti nu e to d estro y o u r we tl a nd s at a n a l a rmin g ra te to WITH AMBER : mak e w ay fo r roa d s a nd d eve lopm e nt. Si nce t h e mid -I 800 s m o re th a n h a l f th e n a ti o n 's AND GOLD • orig in a l w e tl ands h ave b ee n lost. • AND BLUE -• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , • A wet la nd is a n ecosyst e m th a t h as b o th t e rres tri a l a nd a qu a ti c c h aracte r is ti cs. AND ROSES : Swamp s . m ars hes a nd bogs a re ty p es of wetl a nd s comm o n l y found in the Unite d PINKER THAN • DAWN : S ta tes. Som e wetl a nd s a re c on sta ntl y w et, a nd som e a r e w et onl y durin g ce1t a in tim es AND RANKS OF : o f th e y e ar. T h e re a re m a ny diffe re nt d e fin iti o n s of w e tl a nd s, s om e sci e ntifi c and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affec t wet la nd regul a t ion s a nd wet land p ro te ction . M ost d e finiti o n s • REEDS • incl ud e three main c harac te ri stics of we tl ands: 1) prese nce o f surface wate r o r wa te r in AND GRASSES : t h e roo t z o n e: 2) h y dric so il s (soi ls fo1m e d und e r w ate rl ogg e d conditions); a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (h y d rophy tes) th at h as a da pt e d to li vi n g in w e t condi tions. Countle ss va ri a tions WITHDRAWN • of th ese c harac te ri sti cs o ft e n m ake it d iffic u lt to dete rmin e w h e th e r o r no t a pa rti c ul a r FROM GRAVEN : a rea is a w e tl a nd . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • • STANDS . • • • -Theodore • Goodridge Roberts : • During col onia l tim es, w e tl a nd s wer e regarde d a s d ark, d is m a l swampy a reas th at e nco uraged d isease, o b s tru c te d overl a nd trave l a n d res tric te d food pro du c ti o n . We t la nd s we re v iewed as obs tac les to d eve lo pm e n t -pl aces th at mu s t b e drain e d . As soc ie ty b eca m e a ware o f th e wea lt h of be ne fit s w e tl a nd s o ffer, v ie w s a bo ut w e t la nd s • c h a nge d co n s id era bl y. Peo pl e b ega n to rea li ze that wetla nd s h ave b oth ecologica l and • Fo r more information, contact: Save Our Strea m s • eco no m ic impo rta nce. Con servi ng w e tl a n ds offe rs m any be n efi ts, inc lud in g: • • • • Wi ldlife Ha b ita t -We tla nd s prov id e s h e lte r, foo d , a nd s pawnin g a nd nes tin g s ites for : ma n y s pecies o f b ird s, fi s h , m a mma ls , rep til es a nd in ve rte brates . A lth o ug h wet la nds : make up onl y a bo ut 5 pe rce nt of la nd in th e Unite d States, th ey s upp o rt a b o ut 190 • a mphibian s p ec ies a nd o n e-th ird o f all bird s p e ci es in th e country. A lm ost 43 pe rcent • 707 Conser vation Lane • of the federa ll y listed thre a te ne d a nd e nd a n ge re d anima l s pe ci es a re in som e way • Gaithersburg, MD • d e p e ndent o n w e t la nd s for s urv iva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • 18001 BUG-IW LA : Floo d wate r S torage -D e p e ndin g on th e area's top ogra ph y and loca ti o n in th e wa ter- E-mail : sos @iwla.o r g • s he d , wetl a nd s ca n act as w ate r storage a reas . Wetl a nds locate d a lo ng a ri ve r a re es pe - Website: www.iwla .org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Anny Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type , location, soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stom1 energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. Jn 1992 , Hunicane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force, it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted rw10ff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billiDn annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licenses , travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife . August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology • Our natio n 's wetla n ds h ave b een po llut ed, fi ll e d in , paved ove r and la rge ly ig no red • • si nce European settl e rs fir st a rri ved in North A m e ri ca. Swa mp s , bogs and m ars hes • • we re see n as waste la nd s that we re b es t avoided o r fill ed to c reate ·'produ ct ive la nd ." • • Today, we are beginnin g to recogn ize th a t wetl a n ds a re not wastelands ; they a re vital • • b reedin g habita t for wi ldli fe, water fi lt ration a nd s torage a reas. They also a re importa nt : t o the recreationa l, com m e rc ia l food ha r vest, as well as th e touri sm a n d timb e r ind us- IM A GREEM • tri es. Th e ir natura l function s, s u c h as s to r ing flood waters and producin g seafood , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : importa nt to peo pl e . But we contin u e to d estroy o ur wetland s at a n ala 1ming rate to WITH AMBER : make way fo r roads and d eve lopme nt. Since th e m id-1800s more tha n h a lf t he na ti on's AND GOLD • origin a l wetlands h ave b een lost. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS, : A wetlan d is an ecosyste m that has b o th t erres tri a l and aqu a ti c c haracte ri st ic s. AND ROSES • Swamps, mars h es a nd bo gs are ty pes of wetland s commonl y found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetla nd s are con st a ntly wet, a nd som e a re wet only durin g ce1tain times AND RANKS OF : of the year. The re are many different d efinition s of wetla nd s, some sc ientific a nd some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, w hi ch affect wetla nd regul ation s a n d wetland prote ction . Most defi nition s • REEDS • include three main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface wa ter o r water in AND GRASSES : the root zone; 2) hy dric so il s (soi ls fo rm ed under waterlo gged conditi ons); a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrop hytes) that h as adapted to li vi ng in wet conditi ons. Co untless va ri a tion s WITH DRAWN : of these characteristics often m ake it diffi cu lt to determine w he th er o r n o t a part ic ul ar FROM GRAVEN • area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : During colonial time s, wet lands were regarded as dark , di smal swam py areas th at : e nco ura ge d disease, obstru c ted ove rl a nd trave l a nd restricted food production . -Theodore • Wet la nd s were viewed as obstacles to deve lo pment -places th a t mu st b e drain e d . As Goodridge Ro berts : soc iety b eca m e awa re of th e wea lth of benefits wetl ands offer, v iews abo ut wet la nd s Fo r more in formation, co ntact: Save Our Streams • • c h an ge d considerably. People b ega n to rea li ze th at wetland s h ave both ecolog ic a l and • • eco nomi c impo1ta n ce. Co n serv in g w etlands offers m any benefi ts, including: • • • • Wi ld l ife H abita t -Wetland s prov id e s h e lter, foo d , and s pawnin g a nd nes tin g s it es for : many s pec ies of bird s , fi s h , m amma ls. repti les a nd in ve rte bra tes. A lth o ug h wetlands : make up only abo ut 5 percent of la nd in the U nited State s , th ey s upport a bout 190 • amphibi an s peci es and one-third of a ll bird s pecies in the country. A lm ost 43 pe rcent • 707 Conservation Lane • of the federally li sted th rea tened a nd e nd a nge red animal spec ies are in some way • Gaithersburg, MD • depende nt on we tl ands fo r s urv iva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-0150 • (8001 BUG -IWLA : Floodwa te r S to ra ge -D ependin g o n th e a rea's to pograph y and location in th e water- E-mail : sos@iwla.org • sh e d , wetland s can act as water storage a reas. Wetl a nd s located a long a river are espe- Website: www.iwla.org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type, location , soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wet lands shie ld coastlines and di ss ipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages becau se Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baJTier. Wetland s also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricu ltural lands. They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals, and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic B e nefi ts -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their Jives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs natiomvide 2 and contributes $ l 52 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $72 0 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licen ses, travel and lodging in the sa me year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of a ll adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who ma y neve r visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful place s, suc h as natural wetlands, still exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpen sive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands fir sthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology Our nation 's wetlands have b een polluted , filled in , paved over and la rge ly ignored since E urop ean se ttlers fir s t atTived in North America. Swa mp s, bogs and marshes • were see n as wastelands that were best avoided or filled to create "productive land." • • Today, we are b eginning to reco gnize that wetlands a re not wastelands ; they a re vital • • breeding habitat for wildlife, water filtration and storage areas. They a lso are important : to the recreational , commercial food harvest, as well as the touri sm a nd timber indu s- IN A GREEN • tries. Their natura l functions , such as storin g flood waters a nd producing seafood, are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : important to people. But we continue to destroy our wetlands at an ala1ming rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads and development. Since the mid-1 800s more than h a lf the nation 's AND GOLD • original wetlands have been lo st. • AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS , • A wetland is an ecosystem that has both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES : Swamps, marshes and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in th e United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constantly wet, and some are wet only during ce1tain times AND RANKS OF: of the year. There are many different definitions of wetlands, some sc ientific and some LUSH YOUNG • legal, which affec t wetland regulation s and wetland protection. Most definitions • REEDS • include thre e main characteristics of wetlands: 1) presence of surface water or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone: 2) hydric soils (soils f01med under waterlogged conditions): and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) that has adapted to li v ing in wet conditions. Countless variations WITH DRAWN • of these characteristics often make it difficult to determine whether or not a particular FROM GRAVEN : area is a wetland. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS . : During colonial times, wetlands were regard ed as dark. dismal swampy areas th at : enco uraged disease, obstructed overland trave l and restricted food production. -Theodore • Wetlands were viewed as obstacles to development -places th at must be drained. As Goodridge Roberts : • society beca me aware of the wealth of benefits wetlands offer, views about wetlands • changed considerably. People began to reali ze that wet la nd s h ave both ecolo gica l and • • econom ic importance . Conserving wetlands offers many benefits, including: For more information, contact: Sa ve O ur Str ea m s • • • • • • • • • • 707 Con servation La ne • Wi ldlife Habitat -Wetlands provide s helter, food, and spaw nin g and nesti ng s it es for many species of birds, fish, m amma ls, reptil es and invertebrates. Although wet lands make up only about 5 percent of land in the United States , the y sup port about 190 amphibian species and one-third of all bird spec ie s in the country. Almost 43 percent of the federally li sted threatened and endangered animal spec ies are in some way • Ga it hersburg, MD • dependent on \·vet lands for s urviva l. 2 087 8 -2983 • Phone: (301) S48-01 SO • (8001 BU G-I W LA : Floodwater Storage -Dependin g on the area's topography and location in the water- E-mail: so s@ iwla.org • shed, wetlands can act as water storage areas . Wetlands located along a river are espe- We bsi te : www.iwl a.o rg • • cially valued for the ir capacity to retain flood water. In 1972 , the U .S . Am1y Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon th e season and amount of precipitation , as we ll as th e wetland 's type, location, so ils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Contro l -Coastal wet lands shjeld coastlin es and di ss ipate stom1 energy. They act as buffe rs against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective baITier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a-Slower rate. Water Purifi cation -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments , accumu late nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic B enefits -Fish, shellfi sh, cranbeITies, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod - ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators, geese , beaver a nd muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on tra vel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licen ses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recrea tion -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even peop le who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , sti ll exist. Education -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories. Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands first hand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999 August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJEC T S PACKET Wetland Ecology Our n ation 's wetlands h ave been polluted , filled in , paved over a nd la rge ly ignored s in ce E urop ea n se ttl e rs fir s t a ITi ved in North A m e ri ca. Swamp s , bogs a nd m a rs hes • we re see n as was tel a nd s that we re best avo id e d or fill e d to cre a te ·'productive la nd ." • • Today, w e a re beg innin g to recogni ze that wetla nd s a re not wastelands; th ey ar e v it a l • • breeding habitat for wildlife , water filtrati on a nd sto rage areas. T h ey also are importa nt : to the recreational. comm e rci a l foo d har vest, as we ll as th e touri sm a nd timber indu s- IN A GREEN • tri es. T he ir n a tural fun c tion s, s uc h as s torin g flood wa ters and producin g seafood , are PLACE LANCED • TH ROUGH : important to peo pl e . But we continue to destroy our wetland s at an a larm in g rate to WITH AMBER : make way for roads a nd deve lopme nt. Since the mid-180 0 s more tha n h a lf the n a tion 's AND GOLD • origina l wetl a nds have been lo st. • AND BLUE -• A PLACE OF : __ WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND : WEEDS , : A wetland is an ecosystem that h as both terrestrial and aquatic characteristics. AND ROSES • Swamps, m ars h es and bogs are types of wetlands commonly found in the United PINKER THAN • DAWN : States. Some wetlands are constant ly wet, and some are wet onl y durin g certain time s AND RANKS OF : of the year. There are many diffe re nt definitions of wetlands, some sc ientific and some LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which affec t wetland regulations a nd wetland protection. Most d efi nition s • REEDS • include three m a in characteristics of wetl a nds : I) prese nce of s urface wate r or water in AND GRASSES : the root zone: 2) hy dric soils (soils fonned under waterlogged conditions); and 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etation (hydrophytes) tha t h as a d a pted to living in wet conditions . Countl ess variations WITH DRAWN • of th ese characteristics o ften m ake it diffi cu lt to determ ine wh e ther or n o t a parti c ul ar FROM GRAVEN : a rea is a wetland . RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE : WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? HERON • STANDS . : During colonial time s, wet lands were regarded a s dark. di smal swampy a rea s that : e ncoura ged disease , o b s tructed ove rl a nd trave l and restricted food produ ction . -Theodore • Wetlands were v iew e d as obstacles to deve lo pment -places th at mu st be drain e d. As Goodridge Roberts : soc ie ty be ca m e a ware of th e wealth of b e n e fits w e tl an d s offer, views about wetlands • changed con s id era bl y. Peo pl e b egan to realize t h at wetland s h ave both ecologica l and • • • econ o mic impo1tance . Con serving w e tl ands offe rs many b e nefits, includ in g: • • • • Wi ld/{fe Ha bita t -We tland s pro vi d e s helte r, food, a nd s pawnin g a nd nesti n g s it es for : many s pe c ies of birds , fi s h , mammal s, rept il es and invertebrates . Although wet la nd s For more information, • make up only a bout 5 percent of la nd in th e Un it ed States, th ey s upport about 190 co ntac t : • Save Our Strea ms : amphibian s p ec ie s and one-third of all bird s pec ies in the country. Almost 43 percent 70 7 Conser vatio n La ne • of the feder a ll y li sted threaten e d a nd endangered animal s peci es are in some way • Ga i th e rsburg, M D • dependent on w e t lands for s urv iva l. 2087 8 -2983 • Phon e : (301 ) 548-01 50 • (8 oo ) BUG -IWLA : Floodwater Storage -Depending on th e area's topography and lo cation in the water- E-m ail: sos @iwla.org • sh e d , wetlands ca n act as water storage areas. Wetland s located along a river are es pe- Websi te : www.iwla .o r g • • cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. Tllis depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland 's type, location, soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coast lines and dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind , rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida. But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force , it cost only 2 .5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets, building and agricultural lands. They trap sedi- ments, accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters. Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, lo w-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Benefits -Fish, she ll fish, cranberries , tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their lives. The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $-152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese , beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996 , recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37 .8 billion on equipment, licenses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simp ly for visua l enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing , bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of a ll adults across the nation hunt, fish, bird-watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places, such as natural wetlands , still ex ist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand . The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wild life . August 1999 • • • • • • • • • • • SAVE OUR STREAMS PROJECTS PACKET Wetland Ecology August 1999 • O ur na tion 's we tland s have been p o llute d , fil le d in , pave d ove r a nd la rge ly ig no red • • si nce E urop ea n settl e rs fir s t atTi ved in North A m e ri ca. Swa mp s, bogs a nd m a rs hes • • we re see n as was te la nd s th a t we re b es t avo ided o r fill e d to c rea te ·'p rod uct ive la nd .'' • • Today, we a re b eginnin g t o recogni ze tha t we tl a nd s a re not waste la n ds ; th ey a re vita l • • bree din g ha bita t for w ildlife , wa te r filtr a ti o n a nd sto rage are a s. T hey a lso a re imp o 11 a nt : to th e re crea tion a l, comm e rci a l foo d harves t, as w e ll as th e touris m a nd timbe r indu s- IN A GREEN • tri es. Th e ir na tural fun c tion s, s uc h as s to r in g flood wa ters and p ro du c in g seafood , are PLACE LANCED • THROUGH : im p orta nt to peo pl e. But we co nt i nu e to d estroy o ur wetla nd s at a n a laim in g ra te to WITH AMBER : m ake way fo r road s a nd d eve lopme nt. S in ce th e mid -18 00 s m o re th a n ha lf th e na ti o n 's AND GOLD : o ri g in a l w e tl an ds h ave b ee n lost. AND BLUE-• A PLACE OF : WHAT IS A WETLAND? WATERAND • • WEEDS , : A wetl a nd is a n ec o syste m th a t h as both terrestri a l and a qu a tic characte ri st ics. AND ROSES • Swamp s, m a r sh es and bogs are ty p es o f we tl a nds c ommo nly found in the Unite d PINKER THAN • DAWN : S ta tes. Som e wetland s are c on sta ntly wet a nd som e a re wet onl y durin g ce11a in times AND RANKS OF : o f th e yea r. The re are m a n y different d e fini t io n s of we tl a nd s, so m e sc ie ntifi c a nd so m e LUSH YOUNG • lega l, which a ffec t w e tl a nd regul a tion s a n d wetland prote ction . M ost d efi n iti o n s • REEDS • incl ud e three m a in c h a ra cte ri st ics of wetl an d s: I ) presen ce o f surface wa ter o r wa ter in AND GRASSES : th e roo t z one; 2) h y dric soil s (soi ls form e d under waterl ogged conditi o n s ): a nd 3) veg- STRAIGHTLY : etati o n (h y drop hy tes) tha t h as a d a pt e d to li v in g in w e t condition s. Countl ess va ri a ti o n s WITHDRAWN • of th ese ch arac te ri sti cs ofte n m a ke it diffi c ult to d e te rmin e wh e th e r o r no t a p a rti c ul a r FROM GRAVEN : a re a is a w e tl a nd. RIPPLES OF • • SANDS • THE STILL BLUE • WHY ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT? • HERON • STANDS. : During colon ia l tim es, w e tland s wer e regard e d a s da r k , di smal sw a mpy a reas tha t : e n co ura ged di sease, obs tru cte d ove rland t rave l and res tri cte d foo d produc ti o n . -Theodore • We tl a nd s we re v iew e d as obs tac les to d eve lo pm e nt -pl aces th at mu s t be d ra in e d . As Goodridge Roberts : • soc ie ty b eca m e aware o f th e wea lt h of b e ne fit s w e tl a nds o ffe r, views a b o ut we tl a nds • c h a nge d c o n s id era bl y. Peo pl e b ega n to rea lize th a t wetl a nd s h ave b oth ecologica l and • • eco no mi c imp o rt a n ce. C on serv in g w e tl a nd s o ffe rs m a n y b en e fi ts, in c ludin g: • • • • Wildlife H abitat -We tl a nd s prov id e s h e lte r, food , a nd spawnin g a n d nes tin g s it es for : ma ny s pec ies of bird s, fi s h , m a mm a ls, rept il es a nd inve rte b ra tes. A lth o u g h wetl a nds Fo r more in fo rmation, • m ake up onl y a b o ut 5 pe rc e nt of la nd in the Unite d States, th ey s upp ort a bo ut 190 co ntact: • Save Our Streams : am phibi a n s pec ies a nd o ne-thi rd o f all bi rd s p e ci es in th e country. A lm os t 4 3 p e rc e nt 707 Conservation Lane • of th e fe d e ra ll y li sted threa te n ed a nd e nd a nge red a n im a l s peci es a re in so m e w ay • Gaithersburg, MD • d e pe nd e nt o n w e t la nds for s urv iva l. 20878-2983 • Phone: (301) 548-01 SO • 18001 BUG-IWLA : Floo d water S to ra ge -Depe nd in g on the a r ea's top ogra ph y a nd lo c a tio n in th e wa te r- E-mail: sos@iwla.org • s he d , w e tl a nd s can act as w a te r st o rage a re a s. Wetl a nd s loc ate d a lo ng a ri ve r are es p e- Website: www.iwla .org : cially valued for their capacity to retain flood water. In 1972, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that loss of wetlands along the Charles River near Boston would have caused $17 million in annual flood damage. A wetland also can act as a recharge site for ground water. This depends upon the season and amount of precipitation , as well as the wetland's type, location, soils and relationship to the water table. Erosion Control -Coastal wetlands shield coastlines and dissipate stonn energy. They act as buffers against wind, rain and wave action. In 1992 , Hunicane Andrew caused $20 billion in damage to the developed coasts of Florida . But when Andrew hit the Louisiana coast with the same force, it cost only 2.5 billion to repair the damages because Louisiana's coastal wetlands pro- vided a protective barrier. Wetlands also reduce channel erosion that occurs during floods by storing runoff water and releasing it at a slower rate. Water Purification -Wetlands help purify drinking water by naturally filtering polluted runoff from city streets , building and agricultural lands . They trap sedi- ments , accumulate nutrients, transform a variety of toxic substances such as pesticides and heavy metals , and can remove potentially dangerous micro-organisms from surface waters . Constructed wetlands are a highly efficient, low-cost alternative for treating sewage. Economic Bene.fits -Fish, shellfish, cranberries, tim- ber, wild rice and other commercially important prod- ucts are harvested from wetlands. More than 95 per- cent of the commercially harvested fish and shellfish in the United States are wetland dependent during some stage of their Jives . The commercial fishing industry provides nearly 2 million jobs nationwide 2 and contributes $152 billion annually to the economy. Commercial hunting of wetland animals such as alli- gators , geese, beaver and muskrats contributes hun- dreds of millions to the economy each year. Recreational activities in wetlands also contribute to the economy. In 1996, recreational hunters of migra- tory birds spent $720 million on equipment and $576 million on travel. Anglers spent $37.8 billion on equipment, licen ses, travel and lodging in the same year. Recreation -Wetlands provide great diversity and beauty simply for visual enjoyment. They provide endless opportunities for popular recreational activi- ties such as hunting, canoeing, bird watching and hik- ing. More than half of all adults across the nation hunt, fish , bird -watch or photograph wildlife. Even people who may never visit a wetland may be happy just knowing that wild and beautiful places , such as natural wetlands, still exist. Edu cation -Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories . Students of all ages can benefit from experiencing the specialized habitat of wetlands firsthand. The complexity of wetland ecosystems makes them excellent subjects for research projects such as vegetation surveys and studies of water quali- ty or wildlife. August 1999