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Home My WebLink AboutSustainability Green Dev.Are we panning for sustainable development? Philip R Berke; Maria Manta Conroy American Planning Association. Journal of the American Planning Association; Winter 2000; 66, I; ProQuest Direct Complete pg. 21 This article sets forth a set of six prin- ciples that define and operationalize the concept of sustainable develop- ment. Using these six principles, a sample of30 comprehensive plans was evaluated to determine how well their policies support sustainable develop- ment. Findings indicate no significant differences in how extensively sustain- ability principles are supported be- tween the plans that state an intention to integrate sustainable development and those that do nm. In addition, these plans do not provide balanced support of all six sustainability princi- ples, as they support some principles significantly more than others. Berke is an associate professor of land use and environmental planning at the Univer- sity cf North Carolina at Chapel Hi ll and a research fellow at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Manta Conroy is an assistant professor of city planning at The Ohio State University. journal of the American Planning Assodation, Vol. 66, No. 1, Winter 2000. ©American Planning Association, Chicago, IL. ARTICLES - Are We Planning for Sustainable Development? An Evaluation of 30 Comprehensive Plans Philip R. Berke and Maria Manta Conroy S ustainable developmcnr has been touted as a new planning agenda (Beadey & Manning, 1998). Critical global environmental issues of greenhouse gas emissions and loss of biodiversity have led to increased advocacy for more susrainable land use practices (Vitousek er al., 1997). States such as rlorida, Minnesota, .New Jersey, and Vi rginia have initiated sustainability programs ro mobilize communities to alter land development practices dominated by sprawl (Krizek & Power, 1996). The President's Council on Sustainable Devdopment ( 1996) has promoted the concept through the funding of local planning demonstration projects. Counrries such as Holland and New Zealand have adopted national legislation man- dating that local plans and implcmenrario n actions integrate key principles of sustainable development (Berke er al., 1997; May er al., 1996; Mega, 1996; Roseland, 1992). Given the increasing weight of responsibility the public has placed on plans in advancingsustainabk development, we should be able to determine if plans are making progress. While the verbiage about sustainable develop- ment is subsramial, there is lit tle empirical evidence regarding the extent to which plans promote it. We used a sample of ciry and county plans to examine the influence of the sustainable development concept on plans. The sample consisted of plans rhar explicitly incorporate rhr sustainable development concept and those rhar do not. Two basic questions were addressed: I. Arr plans that use sustainable development as an organizing concept more likely to promote sustainability principles than plans that do not) .'\PA Journal • Winter 2000 •Vol. 66, No. I 21 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PHILIP R. BERKE ANO MARIA MANTA CONROY 2. Do plans achieve balance by supporting all sustainability principles, or do plans narrowly promote some principles more than o thers? Answers to these questions provided insight into rhe general challenges of advancing the vision of sustainable communities. This article firsr describes the ser of sustainable de- velopment principles we derived to guide plan evalua- tion. \\'/e then present a method for measuring how well plans advance these principles. Next, we describe the re- sults of applying the method to a sample oflocal com- prehensive plans to compare those that use sustainable development as an organizing concept to those that do not, and to assess how we ll they promote diverse sus- tainability principles. Finally, we set forth conclusions and implications for using planning to create sustain- able communities and discuss future research needs. Defining Sustainable Development What is sustainable development? The 1987 report Our Common Future from the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Dewlopmem (WCED) set forth the most widely used definition of the concept: "Sustainable developrn en tis development rhat meets the needs of the present generation wit hour com- promising the ability offurure generations to meet their own needs" (p. 8). The central goal of sustainable devel- opment is intergenerational equity, which implies fair- ness to coming generations. To help nations achieve rhis goal, the Commission attempted to weave together multiple societal values to confront the challenges of reducing overconsumption and gri nding poverty. These values are sometimes re- ferred to as the "three Es" of sustainable development: environment, economy, and equity. The WCED recog- nized that the conventional economic imperative to maximize economic production must be accountable to an ecological imperative to protect the ecosphere, and a social equity imperative to minimize human suffering. On the surface, sustainable developmenr is a simple concept: Current and future generations must strive to achieve a decent srandard ofliving for all people and live within the limits of natural systems. Despite this sim- plicity, there is no general agreement on how the con- cept should be translated into practice. Whi le there is no question that the concept is increasingly being used to guide planning, its implementation is not immediarely apparent. Beatley and Manning ( 1998) argue that within the planning profession, ''There is a general sense that sustainability is a good thing, but will ... require defini- tion and elaboration, as do terms such as freedom and 22 APA Journal • Wimer 2000 •Vol. 66, o. I quality oflife" (p. 3). Other observers are more critical. Campbell {1996) maintains that the "current concept of sustainable development, though a laudable holistic vi- sion, is vulnerable to the same criticism of vague idealism made against comprehensive planning" (p. 296).1 An- drews (1997) further observes that "sustainable devel- opment is primarilr symbolic rhetoric, with competing interests each redefi ning it to suit their own political agendas, rather than serving as an influential basis for policy developmenr" (p. 19). While these perceived shortcomings have some le- gi timacy, efforts focused on translating the concept into planning practice are emerging. An examination of var- ious definitions from the literature in planning scholar- ship and practice reveals key characteristics that can be used to derive a more precise definition (Beatley & Man- ning, 1998; Campbell, 1996; Kaiser er al., 1995; Mega, 1996; Neuman, 1999). One characteristic is "reproduc- tion." Campbell ( 1996) defines sustainable development as "the long-term ability of a system to reproduce" (p. 306). We consider Campbell's notion of"reproduction" to mean not just duplication of the status quo, but also a fostering of revitalization. Accordingly, planners must foresee and shape the scope and character of future de- velopment, identify existing and emerging needs, and fashion plans to assure that those needs will be met and that communities will be able to continuously reproduce and revitali ze themselves. By this definition, built envi- ronments become more li vable; ecosystems become healthier; economic development becomes more re- sponsive to the needs of place rather than furthering the profits of a powerful few; and the benefits of improved envi ronmental and economic conditions become more equitably distributed. A second characteristic is "balance" among environ- menral, economic. and social values (Kaiser et al., 1995; Neuman. 1999). Kaiser and his colleagues argue that plans should reflecc an appropriate balance among these sometimes competing, sometimes complementary val- ues. Achieving balance usually entails coordination, ne- gotiation, and compromise. When all values are nor rep- resented, sustainability cannot be promoted by a plan. If environmental va lues are not accounted for, then the basic life support process upon which a community de- pends cannot be sustained. If economic development values are nor represented, then the fundamental source of community change and improvement is denied. If so- cial values are not rdlected in a plan, then places will be created thar do not meet the life and work needs oflocal people, and do not fairly serve all interest groups. A third characteristic is thar plans must "link local to global concerns" (Mega, 1996). Susrainable develop- ment requires thar communities reach beyond their in- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. dividual interests in future developmem to account for global (and regional) needs. Local plans should ac- knowledge that communities function within the con- text of global (and regional) environmental, economic, and social systems. Moreover, just as communities shou ld nor act in only their own interests, individual citi- zens and interest groups should be required to account for community, regional, and global interests. A fourth characteristic is rh at sustainable develop- ment is a "dynamic process" that extends from the formulation of a plan (Maclaren, 1996; Shepard & Orto- lano, 1996). Sustainabiliry requires communities to pur- sue an evo lving and ever-changing program of activities, including a continuous process of evaluating current and emerging trends, an ongoing means of encouraging citize n participation and negotiating confliccs. and an u pdaring of plans. These acti vities should be orirnred toward searching for ways to continuously move com- munities in the di rection ofbecomin g more sustainable. In sum, the literature on sustainable deve lopment has made subsranrial strides in defining the key charac- teristics of the concept that are relevant to the theory and practice of planning. For our purposes of evaluating plans, we used these characteristics to develop the fol- lowing working definition: Sustainable developmenr is a dynamic process in which communities anricipatc and accommodate the needs of current and future generations in ways that reproduce and balance local social. eco nomic. and ecological systems, and link local ace.ions to global concerns. This definition provides a basis for deriving a more refined and comprehensive ser of sustai nable develop- ment principles for guiding an evaluati on oflocal com- prehensive plans.2 Because plans reflect substantive (or technical) policy outcomes of planning, but do not fully account for procedural di mensions, this study focuses on the subs tan rive principles of susrainabili ry. Thus, rhe fourth characteri sti c of sustainabiliry, dynamic process, will nor be exa mined. Given our definition of suscainable development and the task of constructing a set of operational per- formance principles for evaluating local comprehensive plans, we offer six basic principles. All retain an explicit connection to the location, shape, scale, and quality of human settlements. None of them are narrow; all refer to clusters of quali ties. Yet each principle has a common basis and may be measured in a common way. The prin- ciples are: 1. Hannony with nature. Land use and deve lopment activities should support the ARE WE PLANNING FOR SCSTA!NABLE DEVELOPMENT? essential cycles and life support functions of ecosystems. Whenever possible, these activities should mimic ecosystem processes, rather than modify them to fit urban forms. These activi- ties must respect and preserve biodiversiry, as well as protect and restore essential ecosystem services that maintain water quality, reduce flooding, and enhance sustainable resource development. 2. Livable built e11vironments. The location, shape, density. mix, proporrion, and quality of developmenr should enhance fir between people and urban fo rm by creating physical spaces adapted ro desired activities of inhabitants; encourage community cohesion by fostering access among land uses; and support a sense of place to ensure protection of any special physical characteristics of urban forms that support community idemiry and attachment. 3. Place-based econom)>. A local economy should strive to operate within natural system limits. Ir should nor cause deterioration of the natural resource base, which serves as a capital asset fo r future econo mic developmenr. Essential prnducts and processes of nature should be used up no more quickly than nature can renew them. Waste d ischarges should occur no more quickly than nature can assimilate rhem. The local economy should also produce built environments that meet locally defined needs and aspirations. It should create diverse hous1 ng, and infrastructure that enhances community livability and the efficiency oflocal eco nomic acrivities. 4. Eq1~ity. Land use patterns should recognize and impro\·e the conditions of low-income populati ons .:md nor deprive them of basic levels of environmental health and human dignity. Equitable access to social and economic resources is essential for eradicating poverty and in accounting fo r the needs of the least advantaged. 5. Polluters pa)'. Pollurers (or culpable interests) that cause adverse communitywide impacts should be required ro bear rhe cost of pollu- tion and other harms, with due regard to the public interest. 6. H.esponsible rey,ionalism. Communities should nor act in their own interests to the detriment of rhc interests of others, and they should be responsible for the consequences of their ,'\PA Journal • Wimer 2000 •Vol. 66, No. 1 23 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PHILIP R. BERKE AND MARIA MANTA CONROY actions.Just as individual developers should be subject to the principle that polluters (or culpable interests) pay, a local jurisdiction has an obligation to minimize the harm it imposes on other jurisdictions in pursuit of its own objectives. ln this conception of sustainability, principles through 4 are associated with the "reproduction" char- acteristic, since they address the long-term abili ty of a community to sustain healthy local social, economic, and ecological systems. Principles 5 and 6 reflect the "li nk local to global concerns" characteristic, wherein com- munities (and individuals) act \.vith a broader obligation to others. How well all six principles are represented in plan policies relates to the "balance" characteristic. We next developed a content analysis method for evaluating the extent to which plans advance these prin- ciples. We first identified the susrainability principles promoted by rhe policies of each plan, and then rated the extent to which the policies promote the principles. Admittedly, this approach is somewhat mechanistic and may not embrace the synergi stic qualities that are fre- quently present in good plans. Nevertheless, it identifies principles that are promoted b)' plans and provides an analytical framework ro compare plans from diverse commun1t1es. Sample Selection and Plan Evaluation Method The first phase of this study focused on identifying a study population and selecting a sam pie oflocal plans. The next phase involved deve lopment and application of a method for evaluating the extent ro which plans in- tegrate the principles of sustainable development. Sample Selection An exploratory approach was used in developing the study population of community plans. The initial task was to identify two groups of plans: those that explicitly used sustainable development as an organizing concept for plan preparation; and those which did not use the concept but have been noted as high-quality plans. The sustainable development plans were identified using the following procedure. Through reports from U.S. federal agencies (i.e., Environmental Protection Agency and Housing and Urban Development), three newsletters of sustainable development organizations, susta inable community conference proceedings, and o ne co mputer mail list server, we identified 105 communities that po- tentially used the sustainable de\'elopmenr concept in their plans. 24 APA Journal • Winter 2000 •Vol. 66, No. l To assure thar the plans reflected contemporary practice, only plans that were prepared between 1985 and 1995 were included. Small jurisdictions were con- sidered to lack the resources to initiate a sufficient plan- ning effort, so communities ofless than 2,000 popula- tion were excluded. Communities over I million in population were also excluded because the types of urban planning programs in such large cities were con- sidered unique and not generalizable to the study popu- lation. The population size parameters reduced the study populati on ro 85 local jurisdictions. A plan was then obtained from each. An initial content analysis was conducted to deter- mine how the sustainable development concept was used in these plans. Results indicated that the concept was used as an overarching framework for guiding the preparation of lO plans. Six of rhese included the core values of sustainability (environmental, economic, and equity) in an mtroductory vis ion statement that served ro guide the formulation of goals and policies in subse- quem plan d emems. Four plans did not include a vision statement bur contained language that consistently re- ferred to the core values of sustainable development and translated these values into policies throughout the plan 5 While rh is total is somewhat lower than \\'e ex- pected, these communities show considerable variation in geographic location and population size. The com- munities that produced sustainable development plans are located in 10 states (Ca lifornia, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Oregon, Vermont, Tennessee, Texas, \Xlash- ington, and Wyoming). These communities are equally distributed in population size across a range from about 20,000 to 900,000 people. From the remaining 75 plans, we selected a sample ofhigh-qualiry plans that did not use sustainable devel- opment as J.n organizing concept. We considered these plans to be high-quality efforts for several reasons. First, many were American Planning Association (APA) award winners at the national or state chapter level. Second, all were documented in agency reports or professional prac- tice journals as commendable plans that tackle a range of substantive issues, including, for example, natural resource protection, inner-ciry redevelopment, growth managemellt, urban design, and social justice. A group of 20 was rhen randomly selected from these 75 plans. As an indicator of the quality of this group, 10 had received national or state chapter awards from the APA. The other 10 were documented in the lit- erature as being high-quality efforts. No significant dif- ferences in population size, growth rate, and presence of state mandates for local planning were detected between the sustainability group of plans and the nonsustain- ability group.4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The sample thus provides the basis for comparing plans that integrate sustainable development with rhose rhat do not. The question is whether plans that integrate the concept advance sustainability principles more than plans that do not. Determining the contribution of the sustai nable development concept to a plan's polici es and implemen tation strategies is of major interest. Plan Evaluation Method The next phase was to develop a method for evalu - ating the extent to which a plan's policies promote sus- tai nable development principles. This entailed develop- ment of a plan evaluation protocol that required three i rems of information from each policy statement. First, each policy was classified based on the sustainable de- ve lopment principle promoted by the policy. The prin- ciple was ide ntified based on the goal that was linked to a give;i policy and/or the rationale to supporr the policy that \\'as included in the text of the plan. Second, the type of development management technique (e.g., zoning and subdivision regulations or capital facility program) stipulated by each policy for promoting a given principle was idemified. Figure l sho\\'s six categories of tech- niques included in the protocol and the tecbnig ues they contain. Third, each policy was evaluated as suggested in the plan (score = 1) or required by the plan (score = 2). Policies that are "suggested" contained key words such 1 . Land Use Regulation Density Permitted use Special study zone Sensitive area overlay Subd1vis1on Site review Local environmental impact statement 2. Property Acquisition Transfer of development rights Acquisition of land Acquisition of development rights Land bank Acquisition of development units 3. Capital Facilities Phased growth Concurrency Location of capital facilities Urban service boundary Annexation ARE WE PLr\NNING FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT> as encourage, consider, intend, or should. Policies were "re- quired" if they conrained words such as shall, will, require, or must. Figure 2 presents three examples of how the eval- uation method was applied to our sample of compre- hensive plans. To increase reliability in plan evaluation, the proto- col was pretested. Members of the research team (a grad- uate student and the two authors) independently applied the protocol to thr same plan and compared results. The team evaluated several trial plans, each time comparing results, resolving differences in interpretations, and re- fining the protocol. This process was continued until the team was satisfied chat interpretations of principles, de- velopment management techniques, and the regulatory versus voluntary orientation of policies were standard- ized, and plans could be evaluated consistently. Plans were then evaluated by two coders working in- dependently of each other.5 An intercoder reliability score was computed that equaled the number of coder agreemrnrs for plan policies, divided by the total num- ber o f polices. An overall reliability score of 84% was achieved for plans that were double coded. A score in the range of80% or above is generally considered acceptable (Miles& Huberman, 1994). The three items of information for each policy state- ment that were derived from the evaluation were then used to create indices of each sustainable development 4. Financial Incentives Impact fees Reduced taxation Bonus zoning Exaction Land trust funds 5. Building Codes and Standards Standards for new buildings Standards for retrofitting existing buildings 6. Public Education and Awareness Builder workshop Public education program Uob training) Information mailing FIGURE 1 . Policy categories of development management techniques. APA Journal • Winter 2000 •Vol. 66, No. l 25 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PHILIP R. BERKE AND MARJA MANTA CONROY Example 1. A policy from the environmental element ofche Loudoun County [VA] General Plan states that "The county intends to esta blish an overlay zoning district based on the concept of a 150 foot buffer from ... streams that drain 640 acres or more" (Loudoun County Department of Planning [LCDPJ, p. 29). The rationale for this policy fosters the harmony with nature principle by indicating that stream corridors are "excellent buffers for filtering out impurities in surface runoff moving toward a stream, as well as good wildlife corridors" (p. 29). The type of development management technique used is a zoning overlay. The policy is suggestive and was assigned a score of 1 due to the phrase "The county intends .... " Example 2. Another policy from the environmental element of the Loudoun County General Plan states that "The cou nty will continue the Use Value Assessment Program ... to preserve prime agricultural uses" (LCDP, 1991, p. 34). The rationale for this policy supports the place-based economy principle by indicating that "Prime farmland is the foundation of the County's agricultural industry, one of Loudoun's largest and most valuable economic secrors" (p. 31 ). The development management technique used is tax assessment of use value (rather than higher market value). The policy is required and was assigned a score of2 due to the phrase "wtll continue .... " Example 3. A policy included in the housing element of the Charleston [SC] Comprehensive Plan indicates that "The City must ... creare a land bank for future affordable housing developments" (Charleston Department of Planning and Urban Development, 1991, p. 15). The plan directly links a goal with this policy and includes a supportive rationale. The goal, "Provide City res idents with affordable ... housing" (p. 13), promotes the equity principle. The rationale indicates that "Our most critical need is to make housing available for the nearly 9,000 households recognized as very low income" (p. 13). The development management technique used is a land bank. A score of 2 was assigned to this required policy, as indicated by the phrase "The City must ... " FIGURE 2. Examples of the plan policy evaluation method. 26 APA Journal • Winter 2000 •Vol. 66, No. l principle for each of seven plan elements (housing, trans- portation, environment, energy, land use and design, economic development, and public facilities).6 Compu- tation of each index consisted of two steps. The first was to sum the scores assigned to policies under each princi- ple within each clement. Higher summed scores indicate the use of more policies and development management techniques to promote a particular sustainability prin- ciple, which represents a higher level of community com- mitment and activity devoted toward achieving a given principle. The second step was to standardize the indices by dividing the sum of scores by the maximum possible score and multiplying by 10.7 Does Planning for Sustainable Development Make a Difference? Table l presents the scores by sustainability princi- ple and the total score for each plan in both groups. Plans exhibit considerable diversity in total scores within each group, ranging from 4.4 to 54.6 in the sustainabil- ity group, and from 1.6 to 63.1 in the nonsusrainabiliry group.8 Findings also indica te diversity in the ways both groups advance the sustainability principles. The two highest scoring plans Uacksonville and Portland, OR) illustrate" this poi nr. The Portland plan has the second hig hest total score of all plans in both sample groups. This plan strongly promotes multiple principles by weaving together policies from all plan elements to cre- ate a comprehensi\·e compact urban form strategy. The sustainabk development concept is used as an overar- ching, integrative framework for guiding the creation of this srrategy.9 In contrast, the Jacksonville plan does nor acknowledge the sustainable development concept, yer scores the highest of all plans in both sample groups. The principles in this plan are strongly advanced on a piecemeal basis, wi rh separate plan elements oriented to- ward advancing one or two principles. The housing ele- ment, for example, emphasizes advancement o f the equity principle through housing affordablility and neighborhood revi ralization policies. The environmem al clement promotes the place-based economy and livable built environmenr principles through emphasis on greenway and open space presetvation. These tindings from our descriptive assessment of individual plans appear rn suggest that plans which integrate the sustainable developm ent concept are nor significantly different from plans that do no t. This ob- setvation ra.ises the question of whether use of the sus- tainable development concept makes a difference. To answer this question, we cond ucted a composite assessment that compares the ex tent to which both groups of plans promote sustainable development prin- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction proh ibited without permission . ARE WE PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT? TABLE 1. Scores for promoting sustainable development principles by community.* Sustainable Development Principles Community Harmony with Nature Livable Built Environment Sustainable Development Integrated in Plans Burlington, VT S.S 3.2 Chattanooga, TN 2.1 3.5 Kansas City, MO 2.3 5.1 Lincoln, NE 3.5 8.1 Livingston, MT 1.2 2.3 Portland, OR 10.4 16.8 San Antonio, TX 2.1 4.8 Sanjose, CA 3.2 12.0 Seattle, WA 2.8 6.2 Teton County, WY 3.7 7.1 Sustainable Development Not Integrated in Plans Anchorage, AK 6.5 6.5 Annapolis, MD 2.1 8.5 Arlington, TX 2.8 13.8 Bethel, ME .7 .9 Bozeman, MT .5 7.4 Bucks County, PA 8.8 7.4 Champaign, IL 1.6 9.4 Charleston, SC 6.7 7.4 Cleveland, OH .0 4.1 Davis, CA 5.5 13.6 Georgetown, TX 3.2 13.8 Honey Brook, PA 3.0 4.8 Howard County, MD 10.1 14.1 Jacksonville, FL 14.7 25.3 Loudoun County, VA 8.1 18.7 Madison, WI .0 7.4 Nantucket, MA 3.0 9.9 Pittsburgh, PA .0 5.5 Wilmington, NC 5.1 8.8 Windsor, CT .0 6.7 *Values of .0 may range from 0 to < .1 ciples. Table 2 compares total scores for the two groups by susrainabiliry principle, and compares means for each principle by plan element. Most notably, this assessmenr revealed that whether plans integrate the sustainable de- velopment concept or not has a very limited affect on the presence of susrainabiliry principles in those plans. None of the total scores for the principles are significantly dif- ferent between groups. A closer inspection of mean scores by plan element reveals little variation as well. Four of the seven plan elements (housing, energy, eco- nomic development, and public facilities) show no sig- Place-Based Economy .0 2.1 1.6 .0 .9 10.8 1.4 1.8 2.5 .9 .7 2.5 5.5 .0 .2 3.7 2.1 3.0 2.3 1.6 9.2 .0 2.1 7.4 3.2 1.6 .9 1.6 3.0 1.2 Equity 2.3 3.0 3.2 1.4 .0 8.5 1.2 2.8 1.8 2.8 1.6 2.1 2.1 .0 .2 3.2 1.2 5.8 7 3.9 1.4 .7 4.1 10.1 3.2 .0 2.5 2.5 .9 9 Polluters Pay .0 0 .7 1.8 .0 1.2 .0 1.4 .s .7 .7 .7 .9 .0 .0 .5 1.2 2.3 .0 .9 .2 .2 .9 1.2 1.8 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 Responsible Regionalism .0 .9 .9 1.4 .0 6.9 .2 1.4 3.0 .2 1.4 .7 5 .0 .0 1.4 .9 .0 .0 2.1 .9 .0 4.4 4.4 2.3 .0 .0 .2 .0 .2 Totals 11.1 11 .5 13.8 16.1 4.4 54.6 9.7 22.6 16.8 15.4 17.3 16.6 25.6 1.6 8.3 24.9 16.4 25.1 7.1 27.6 28.8 8.8 35.7 63.1 37.3 9.0 16.4 9.9 17.7 9.0 nificam differences between groups for all principles, two elements (transportation and environment) each have three principl es that are significantly different, and one element (land use) has one principle that is signifi- cantly different. fn sum, use of the sustainable develop- ment concept as an organizing framework appears to have no affecr on how well sustainability principles are integrated in the policies of plans. Severa l reasons may partially explain why our find- ings indicate that the concept has not had a stronger im- pact on plans. One is that "code words" for sustainable APA Journal• Winter 2000 •Vol. 66. No. 1 27 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PHILIP R. I3ERKE AND MARIA MANTA CONROY TABLE 2. Mean and tot.al scores for promoting sustainable development principles by plan element.* Sustainable Development Principles Integrated (Not Integrated) Harmony Livable Built Place-Based Polluters Responsible Plan Element .. with Nature Environment Economy Equity Pay Regionalism Housing .1 ( .4) .6 (.7) .1 ( .1) 1.4 (1 4) .0 (.0) .1 (.0) T ransportat1on .3 (.3) 1.0 (1.7)' .1 (.5r· .1 (.3) .1 (.3f+ 4 (.3) Environment 1.3(1.4) .s (1.sr .0 (.3t' .0 ( .1) .1 (.0) .o Pr Energy .5 (.3) .3 ( .4) .3 (.0) .1 (.0) .0 (.0) .0 ( .1) Land Use .8 ( 1. 1) 2.5 (3.0) .5 (.6) .4 c.1r .2 (.0) .3 ( .1) Economic Development .1 ( .1) .3 (.5) 1 1 (.7) .3 ( .2) .0 (.0) .2 (.0) Public Facilities .5 (.6) 1.4 ( 1.6) .1 (.4) .2 ( .2) .3 ( .1) .4 (.1) Principle Totals 3.5(4.1) 6.9(9.7) 2.2 (2.5) 2.6 (2 .3) .7 (.4) 1.5 (.8) •values of 0 may range between 0 and < 1 ••Among the integrated and not integrated groups: F-values are significantly different (p < .01 ) for each plan element except for the energy element; and the F-value is s1gnificamly different (p < .01) for principle rotals. -.. Comparison of mean scores ofimegrated and not integrated plans for each principle by each plan element and principle totals show t- values that are s1gnificantl~ diFferent for -p < 1, and •-p <.OS. development may not be politically acceptable in many communities, but the principles, being less well known, are accepted as common sense. Thus, some high-scoring plans that incorporate rhe principles but do not use the code words could nor be included in rhc group of plans that integrate the concept. This reasoning suggests that one person writing and developing the plan can make a significant difference. The individual may be convinced of the importance of sustainable development, but may not be able to get in- terest groups to agree ro the idea. In this case, the indi- vidual may nor have used the code words for sustain- ability, but worked the sustainability principles into policies where they are more hidden. Plans may thus re- ceive higher sustainability scores due to committed plan authors, but they were not included in the sustainability group of plans. A second reason could be that the planners who wrote the plans did not have an in-depth exposure to sustainability concepts, since plans in our sample were adopted between 1985 and 1995 and the planners writ- ing these plans were probably our of sc hool a minimum of3 to 5 years. Consequently, plan authors may nor have had the capability to effectively integrate the concept into policies even if they used code words. This inability may partially explain the lack of significant differences between the two groups. While initial findings sugges t that the sustainable development concept has not }'et had a significant im- pact on plans, we contend that the concept is still useful as an overarching guide for evaluating how well plans 28 APA Journal • Winter 2000 •Vol. 66. No. 1 achieve a balanced approach to managing development. Findings derived ro answer the question of whether plans achieve balance by supporting all sustainability principles (posed earlier) demonsrrace the usefulness of the concept. Do Plans Provide Balanced Support of Sustainable Developmen t? Table 2 indicates that some sustainability principles are integrated more than others. \Vithin each group, mean scores for each of the plan elements are signifi- candy different across the six sustainability principles, with rhe exce ption of the energy element. To further explore this issue, Table 3 compares the mean score of the highest scoring principle for each plan element with the mean score of the remaining five principles. The mean scores of both groups of plans were pooled since there are no major distinctions between groups in com- paring highest principle scores with pooled scores of other principles. Two major findings were derived from this analysis. First, these plans most strongly advance the livable built environment principle. This principle had the signifi- cantly highesr mean scores for five of the seven plan ele- ments (transportation, environment, energy, land use and design. and public facilities). This finding suggests that the plans contain integrated strategies that promote the livable bui lt environment principle. Transportation elements of these plans, for example, often emphasize reducing congestion through infrastructure inves tments Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ARE WE PLANNING f'OR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT> TABLE 3. Mean scores of highest scoring principle versus remaining principles. Mean (standard deviation) Plan Element: Highest Scoring Principle Highest Scoring Principle Remaining Principles t-test Housing: Equity Transportation: Livable Bui t Environment Environment: Livable Built Environment Energy: Livable Built Environment 1.4(1.4) 1.4(1.1) 1.5(1.4) .2 (.2) .3 ( .4) .4 ( .5) .1 ( .3) .4 (.3) .2 (.1 ) .3 ( .4) 4.7• 5.4** 3.9*" 1.8* 7.6** 3.7** 5.0** Land Use: Livable Built Environment Economic Development: Place Based-Economy Public Facilities: Livable Built Environment .4 ( .8) 2.8(1.7) .8 (1.0) 1.6 (1.3) •p < .OS **p < .001 and market incentives that support non-auto forms of transportation, establishment of sites for transit facili- ties, and pedestrian-friendly streets. Land use elements focus on manipulating density, proportion, mix, com- patibility, and scale of commercial, civic, and residential development to achieve livable built environment goals, such as enhancing pedestrian access among land uses, fostering civic engagement in public and private spaces, and protecting special qualities of the built environment to support community identity and sense of place. Envi- ronmental elements emphasize livable built environ- ment needs rather than ecological integrity. For exam- ple, policies in the environmental element of Pitts- burgh's comprehensive plan emphasize the use of zon- ing regulations in landslide prone areas "to assure development can proceed safely," and land acquisition by the public sector "to promote increased public river- front access opportunities" (Pittsburgh Department of City Planning, 1993, p. 8). The primary goal of the envi- ronmental element of Portland's plan is to "Enhance the sense Porrlanders have that they are living close to na- ture" (Portland Bureau of Planning, 1995, p. 95). Subse- quent policy statements are consistent with this goal, as they support neighborhood parks and green.ways that are intended to improve urban livability. However, both of these plans give sign.ifican.rly less attention to hydro- logic, nutrient, and wildlife fl ows that are inherent to landscape ecological integrity and to supporting the har- mony with nature principle. Second, the remaining sustainability principles re- ceived less attenrion from plan elements. The harmony with nature principle did not receive the highest score for any element. The equity principle had the signifi- cantly highest mean score in the housing element but was not strongly promoted by the remaining plan ele- ments. Although housing elements have a long tradition of promoting affordable housing programs for low-in.- come people (Connerly & Muller, 1993), comprehensive plans do not extend beyond this conventional practice in seeking to promote the equity principle. Similarly, the place-based economy principle had the significantly highest score in the economic develop- ment element but received low scores in other elements. Economic development elements typically include poli- cies that promote infrastructure in vestment strategies that supporr private sector investments. These elements frequenrly set forth policies that support local entrepre- neurship (e.g., properry tax abatement schemes, impact fee waivers, and zoning regulations that encourage prox- imity of supportive residential markets). In a few cases, other pla.n elemenrs support the placed-based economy principle. The Teton Counry, Wyoming, housing ele- ment promotes affordable housing to avoid local labor force shorrages. The Honey Brook, Pennsylvania, land use element includes farmland preservation policies to support local food production. The Davis, California, energy element provides tax credits for energy-saving building designs for the explicit purpose of fostering local economic self-sufficiency. However, these examples are the exception w common practice. Finally, all plan elements give very limited attention to the polluters pa)' and responsible regionalism princi- ples. These findings were not unexpected. Prior research indicates that plan polices overwhelmingly rely on the conventional regulatory approach to guiding develop- ment (Berke et al., 1996; Burby et al., 1997; Manta & Berke, 1998). Policies that require markets to account for all costs through price adjustments (e.g .. pollution taxes. infrastructure impact fees, and marketable non- point source pollution allowances) are used only on a limited basis. Moreover, given the weak regional gover- nance arrangements in the U.S., it is not surprising that APA Journal • Wimer 2000 •Vol. 66, No. I 29 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PHILIP R. BERKE AND MARIA MANTA CONROY local plans give little attention to the responsible re- gionalism principle. Without strong regional authori- ties in place, there is little incentive for individual com- munities to account fo r ex tralocal impacts made by individual developers and local governments. Conclusions and Implications for Practice and Future Research Our study offers several findings on the role of the sustainability concept in creating plans that promote more sustainable communities. One finding indicates that the explicit inclusion of the concept has no affect on how well plans actually promote sustainability prin- ciples. Interpretation of this finding is mixed. On the one hand, this finding supports the frequent criticism that the sustainable development concept is superficial, lacks political commitment, and cannot serve as an influen- tial basis for policy development. On the other hand, the concept can be viewed as highly relevant to planning since it offers a vision for a new planning agenda, and thus has generated widespread appeal. Because this study focuses on initial attempts by local jurisdictions at integrating the concept into plans, rhe finding should not be surprising. As noted, many communities are now embracing the concept, but their planners may have only a superfi- cial understanding of how to translate it into practice, and their interest groups may be skeptical of this new idea. Campbell ( 1996), for one, argues that "In the battle of big public ideas, sustainability has won: the task of the coming years is simply to work our the details and to narrow the gap between its theory and practice" (p. 304). Thus, sustainable development might best be viewed with optimism, bur not without the caveat that a deeper understanding of how to operationalize the prin- ciples of sustainable development is needed. A second major finding of this study demonstrates rhe potential mility of the concept by indicating that plans do not take a balanced, holistic approach to guid- ing development and moving roward sustainability. In- stead, they focus narrowly on creating more livable built environments, which is the historic mainstream focus of plans (Kaiser et al., 1995; Kent, 1990). hndings further sho\\' that plans have nor branched out into nonrradi- tional subject matter invo lving a host of other sustain- ability principles (i.e., equity, harmony with nature. place-based economy. polluters pay, and responsible regionalism). This finding reveals rhat new, expansive directions musr be taken ro fundamentally reform how planning practice approaches plan making. However. unless the planning field is able to go beyond the symbolic rhetoric 30 APA Journal• Winrer 2000 •Vol. 66, No. 1 to create more holistic plans that help communities move toward susrainability, the critics will be right-sus- tainable development will be nothing more than another popular fad in planning. Even worse, association with an unworkable concept could detract from the credibil- ity of planners in their attempts to infl uence future local land use polices. Ir might also draw down limited staff and fiscal resources oflocal planning agencies that could have been used for more productive activities. Planners clearly have a critical role to play in pro- moting the dialogue about sustainability and in con- ceiving concrete public policy solmions that promote community sustainability. The profession must con- front and overcome Levy's ( 1992) warning that planning "does not seem to have any guiding principle or central paradigm. The comprehensive plan lost its dominance several decades ago and nothing has come along to re- place it" (quoted in Lucy, 1994, p. 305). What actions can planners take to engage the chal- lenge of sustainable development in crafting compre- hensive plans? One recommended action originally of- fered by Lucy ( 1994) is that "community sustainability ... should be incorporated as a fundamental aspect of planning education ... and should be an axiom of plan- ning" (p. 306). Planning educators and professionals must rake an expanded view of comprehensive planning. The concept offers a new paradigm abom where the pro- fession of planning should aim. A key change should be to focus strong atrention on the process of decision- making. Planners must employ various negotiation and dispute resolution tec hniques that are essential in for- mulating the holistic development management strate- gies needed to achieve balance among sustainability principles. This entails resolving the classic conflicts among the primary goals of sustainable development (i.e., "jobs versus environment," "income equality versus growth and efficiency," and "environment versus eq- uity"). The independent effects of the techniques on how well plans promote sustainability principles need close scrutiny and future smdy. Another key change in planning education and the profession involves raking an expanded view of sustain- ability through creative use of land use and urban design solurions. The concept of compacr urban form has re- ceived comiderablc arrenrion as a vision for sustainable developmenr. Compact urban form has been widely pro- moted as an alternative to sprawl by a group of urban designers, called New Urbanises, throughout the 1990s (e.g., Calrhorpe, 1993; Duany& Plater-Zyberk, 1991). In addition w the social and economic benefits of compact urban forms. New Urbanises claim that these develop- ments decre~se automobile dependency, reduce air pol- lurion, and provide more opportunities to protect sensi- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. tive open spaces. However, increasing density is not a panacea. If development is not in the right place, at the right time, and in the right form, even compact urban forms can disrupt ecological and social systems. Plan- ners can thus play a key role in evaluating rhe environ- mental and social impacts of compact urban forms, and adapting them to fit local co nditions. A second recommended action is chat states should adopt planning mandates that require community plans to support principles of sustainabili ty. Prior research suggests that the presence of state planning mandates has a strong influence on the content and quality oflocal plans. A study by planning sc holar Raymond Burby and hi s colleagues found that state planning mandates have a strong positive impact on the quality of natural haz- ard mitigation elements of plans (Berke & French, 1994; Berke et al., 1996; Burby, May, et al., 1997), and on local government adoption of development management cools that are consistent with plans (Dalton & Burby, 1994). They also found chat state mandates are impor- tant because they overcome local political opposition to planning. State mandates co uld thus help local govern- ments to go beyond the rhetoric of sustainable develop- ment by requiring local adoption of plan policies that promote balanced and mutually reinfo rcing sustainable development principles. The current emphasis on livable built environments could be converred co a more holistic view of co mmunity development. A third recommendation is rhat p lanners examine the linkage between plans, implementation efforts, and the sustainability of outcomes. We agn:e with Talen ( 1996) that evaluation of the performance of plans war- rants more investigation than is found in the literature. If planning is to play a significant role in advancing sus- tainable development. then more effort needs to focus on understanding the relationships within the contin- uum from state mandates (and incentiws), to plans, to regulations, to standards, co outcomes. The focus should move from rhetoric to hard, re[e,·anr informa- tion. Better information a.bout outcomes \\'ould be use- ful in assessing progress that communities are making coward suscainabilicy, and evaluating che performance of mandates, plans, and implementation efforts. Better information would also improve the ability and legiti- macy of planners in promoting the morr holistic sus- tainability concept, and give chem an advantage over competing special interest groups. Finally, an evaluation of the efficacy of the sustain- able development concept requires future research si mi- lar ro our study. As noted, the introductio n of the sus- tainable development concept into planning practice is relatively recent, which necessitates considering this study an initial assessment. A full assessment of the effi- ARE WE PLAN NING FOR SUSTAINAB LE DEVELOPMENT? cacy of rhe concept requires a larger sample of plans, as more communities attempt to build on the experiences of prior initi atives in community plan making such as those reported in rhis article. Jn sum, sustainable development has become a highly visible idea in public policy debates. This concept has been touted as an overarching framework for help- ing communities to recognize the links among econ- omy, environmenr, and eq uity. Governing these issues separarely can be costly, and may result in unwanted conseg uences. The cask ahead is to narrow· the gap between theory and practi ce. This study represents an initial seep in car- ryin g out this rask. We argue that planners and their communicies must go beyo nd symbolic use of the sus- tainable development concept to comprehensive devel- opment guidance strategies that balance the core values of diverse interest groups. We suggest ways for the plan- ning field co clarify the role of planners in creating com- prehensive plans that foster community sustainability. However, we must express caution that the path toward sustainability is a long one, with few quick fixes. The complexity of rhe task at hand demands a holistic and carefully considered approach. The task rests largely with planni ng pral-ritioners and scholars. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Edwan.i Kai ser of the Universiry ofNorrh Carolina at Chapel Hill and Robert Deyle of Florida State University fo r their insighrful commenrs on earl y versions of this paper. We also greatly appreciare rhe comments of the anonymous re- viewers. Funding for this research was provided by the Lincoln lnstirute of Land Policy. Cambridge, Massachusetts. NOTES l. Campbell ( 1996) also con rends rhat the criticism of vague idealism made against plans was mosr prevalent some 30 years a!;o. The criticism still holds in contemporary plan- ning pracrice. B,1er ( 1997) conrends that there is consid- erable "nai,·e t'nrhusiasm" abom rht' benefits of plans, es- pecially b~· srar~ planners who often express consid erable opti mism about mandated local plans and their out- comes. Neuman ( 1998) maintains that too much empha- sis has been placed on the policy analysis approach to planning rhar has weakened rh e influence of plans. This approa.:h creates plans rhat are dominated by a policy ori- entation bur wc.1k in use of creative ph)1sical design solu- tions to urban problems. He argues that plans thar em- brace physical design present much clearer images of a vision of urban form, and rhus have a better chance of in- fluencing develnpment decisions. 2. We recognize rhar orher dimensions of plans are crirical to achieving susrainabiliry (e.g .. goals, quality of the facts APA Journal • Winter 2000 •Vol. 66, No. 1 31 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PHlLTP R. BERKE AND MARJA MANTA CONROY rhat supporr policies, monitoring and evaluarion of sus- rainabiliry ind icators, and procedural validiry regarding public parriciparion). Analysis of rhese dimensions will be undertaken as part of our broader study of plan quality and susrainable development. Nevertheless, the focus on policies presented here represents a crirical dimension of plans in rhar policies are the pan of plans rhat guide day- to-day and long-range decision making abour land use and urban form. 3. The six communities w1rh plans rhar have a vision srare- ment framing how the communiry rranslares the concept to planning policy are Kansas City; Lincoln, NE; Potrland. OR; San Antonio; Teton County, \VY; and Searrle. The fou r communities thar fully inregratc susrainable devel- opment are Burlington, Vf; Charranooga, TN; Living- ston, MT; and San Jose, CA. 4. ;:..ro significant differences were detected when we com- pared means for popularion size (r-resr = 1.44, p = .16) and population growth rare 1980-1990 (r-tesr = 1.56, p = .12) between the sustainability group and rhe nonsusrainabil- iry group. No significant difference was found berween the two groups in rhe percent disrriburion of communi- ties rhat were required ro plan under a stare mandate com- pared to communities nor so required (Chi-square= .714, p = .40). 5. Given the exrensive amounr of time required to content analyze the plans (approximately 20 hours pt>r plan), 4 of the 30 plans were double codt·d. Inirially, rhe cwo coders content analyzed rhe first 2 plans to assure that rhe plan evaluation protocol was a reliable coding insrrument. To assure consisrency in coding rhroughout the coding process, 2 additional plans (rhc l Och and 20th plans) were double coded as well. 6. ln some cases, a plan did not include a parricular elemenr .i.s a stand-alone chapter. In rhcse cases, a score ofO was as- signed ro rhe missing ekment. In other cases. an elemem was embedded within another element. For example, rhe Lincoln Com prehensive Plan did not include a separate housing element (Lincoln City Department of Planning. 1994). However, a subsection titled "HousingAffordabil- itv" was included in rhe land use dement. In this case and i~ other similar cases, we: coded rhe subsection as a srand- alone element. ln addition, given the breadth of topics covered by these categories, we did not encounter plans rhat contained additional topics (and elements to cover those topics). 7. The maximum possible score for each principle under each element is 54. As nored, rhere are 27 development management rechniques (see Figure 1), with each rech- nique having a maximum score of2. 8. The individual score for each principle in Table 1 was com- puted by sum ming the standardized scores of each prin- ciple across all plan elemenrs for each plan. The coral score was compured by summing rhe scores of all principles. 9. The Portland plan's vision sratemenr serves to guide the formulation of goals and policies in rhe subsequent ele- ments. The vision sratement uses the term livability to con- •1ey rhe sustainable de\'elopment concept. Livability is 32 APA Journal • Winter 2000 •Vol. 66. No. l explicitly ried ro susrainable development based on a dis- cussion of intergenerational equiry. According ro rhe au- rhors of rhe plan, rhe degree of livabiliry of a place is affected by actions of people from seven generarions back in rime. The "seven generations" philosophy discussed in the plan is borrowed from Native Americans' norion of susrainability. Thar is, uses of the land by rhe current gen- erarion will affrcr rhe level oflivabiliry of the land for the next seven generations. REFERENCES Andrews, R. N. (1997). arional environmental policies: The Uni red Scates. In M.Jaenicke and H.J. Weidner (Eds.), Na- tional enr1ironme11tal policies: A cornparati11e study of capacity building (pp. 25---13). New York: Springer Verlag. Baer, W. C. ( 1997). General plan evaluation crireria: An ap- proach ro making better plans.journal of the American Plan - ning Associ,aion, 63. 329-342. Beatley, T., & Manning, K. ( 1998). ·1 he ccolog;y of place: Planning foren vimnmt'nt, ffonomyand community. Washington, DC: Island Press. Berke. P .. Di.xon.]., & Ericksen. N. ( 1997). Coercive and coop- erati\'e inrergovernmental mandates: A comparative anal- ysis of Florida and ew Zealand environmental plans. 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Energy Page l ot l / m r i n Plannln Research Legislation & Policy Your Community Publications Know ledge Exchange Consultant Services About APA News Education Legislation & Policy I Energy Jobs & Careers Member Services Login Policy Guide on Energy ~onferences & Workshops ~ Printer-Friendly Format Adopted by the Legislative and Policy Committee, December 11, 2003 Adopted by the Chapter Delegate Assembly, April 24, 2004 Ratified by the Board of Directors, April 25, 2004 To download a copy of this policy guide, click here. I. INTRODUCTION The planning profession already recognizes the urgency of such issues as urban sprawl, the degeneration of inner ring suburbs, the disappearance of agricultural and green space land resources, and the proliferation of pavement. We can easily see the need to design ways to reduce our ecological footprint. What is less obvious but equally important is that in order to create the sustainable communities we desire, we must also plan to first increase energy conservation and renewable energy production while significantly reducing use of non-renewable energy sources as well. Most Americans are unaware of the large role energy plays in their everyday lives, and particularly how today's energy production and consumption are directly connected to the condition of the environment, the health of the economy, and the quality of life that will be experienced by future generations. The planning profession is well positioned to contribute to this aspect of sustainability planning for two primary reasons. First, the planner's role now includes a broad range of community-based planning functions. Second, as communities adopt the concept of sustainability and "smart growth," their expectations of traditional comprehensive planning and zoning processes become more complex. In response, planners are striving to keep pace with the environmental, social, and economic interconnections in their communities in order to provide the leadership comprehensive planning demands. The power to shift energy habits and priorities is within reach of every individual American. Where we exercise the most control over our energy future is in our personal actions and professional practice. Thus, the most effective energy policy recommendations that planners develop will be those that guide and facilitate progressive citizen-level actions, decisions, regulations, and land-use policies that lead to energy market shifts towards competitive, healthy, and safe energy alternatives. II. POLICY RATIONALE AND FINDINGS This energy policy guideline addresses primarily non-transportation energy issues. APA's transportation-related energy policies are set forth in the APA Policy on Surface Transportation (adopted 1997), which is incorporated by reference in this policy guide. Smart growth planning initiatives generally http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htrn Search Planning.org My APA I D o r E-mail: Password: ... password help Create a Login Join APA APA is an outspoken advocate for planning. Become a member and : ao : join thousands of people who share your dedication to building strong, vibrant communities. Make a Donation -Hurricane Katrina Relief -Other Donations ... APA Advocate A biweekly e-newsletter on federal legislative and public policy issues of interest to planners and communities. View current issue Read previous editions Legislative Action Center Track legislation, read alerts, e- mail Congress, find local media. And, much more1 Visit APA's Updated Action Center Join APA's advocacy network and receive action alerts. 10/1/2007 nn1;;rgy address transportation energy use, but non-transportation energy issues such as clean energy and energy efficiency tend to be applied somewhat anecdotally to individual projects. The advantages of anticipating and managing other community energy needs are less obvious but no less important to "smart growth." For example, if a community chooses to promote renewable energy to increase self-reliance, a comprehensive set of energy efficiency goals will be needed to make this practical. Energy efficiency can also be an effective tool for designing economic development strategies (see Appendix A). While planners can exert only minimal influence on the selection of energy sources, planners are in a position to greatly affect the demand, location, and mitigation of energy production. Through legislation that encourages and accommodates localized power production, sets standards for extraction and pollution, and establishes criteria for building and site design, planners can greatly affect energy choices and consumption. At the same time, with the help of land-use and transportation planning, planners can influence their communities to reduce the need for energy and reduce the environmental impacts of electric generation and consumption and other energy resource use. In some instances, planners can also influence local energy decisions through the use of local subsidies and education. Energy consumption becomes a significant land-use issue from a number of perspectives. These include the siting of energy generation and transmission facilities, renewable energy, natural resource extraction, transportation policy, resource conservation, industrial development, waste management, and site design. The planning profession is uniquely well placed to advance the adoption of resource sustainability principles through its comprehensive planning processes. The creation of "green buildings and infrastructure," such as LEED™ (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) standards for building design, will enhance our ability to reduce energy dependence and promote the conservation of resources. POLICY FINDINGS: 1. A safe, reliable energy supply is important to every community's health, safety, and commerce. a. Energy is not only a critical component to the functioning of our communities (both urban and rural) but also a major trade commodity and determinant of the country's foreign policies and strategies. b. Utilities have historically made little substantive investment in transmission system improvements especially since deregulation appeared on the horizon. The August 2003 blackout brought this issue to public attention. It was not lack of power but rather the inability of the stressed transmission system to deliver on the demand. This triggered automatic controls to shut down plants http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htrn Page 2of17 Coalitions APA works with other organizations on planning issues ranging from sprawl to transportation. Browse a list of APA's coalition partners, and visit their websites. 10/1/2007 Energy and substations. These automatic shutdown controls are there for safety purposes. 2. The urbanization that has occurred over the past few decades has created a demand for energy that is quickly surpassing its current rate of production. a. Continued population growth and technological advances are generating higher demands for reliable energy supply sources. Right now, consumption patterns show that a tremendous amount of energy will be needed in the future to keep the national economy running. While capacity varies from place to place, this is where, with the proper guidance, community- based planning can begin to have some impact. Greater energy efficiency can be achieved through community commitment beyond individual efforts. Even with the advances made with alternative energy sources and conservation efforts employed, the need for new and upgraded electric generation and transmission facilities has continued. b. Due, in part, to the country's increasingly electronics-based economy, electricity is the fastest growing segment in the American energy mix.1 c. Americans now are spending 90 percent of their time indoors, in buildings that consume two-thirds of U.S. electricity. 2 Perhaps the majority of the time that Americans spend outside of buildings is spent in transit between them, generally as single occupants in fossil fuel powered vehicles. 3. Some of the most useful fossil fuel reserves, particularly petroleum, are not expected to last beyond the year 2050 at current consumption levels.3 In the past decade from 1990 to 2000, proven oil reserves worldwide increased by only 4 percent. According to Kenneth S. Deffeyes, an acclaimed oil geologist, world production of oil will peak sometime this decade and will then slowly and irreversibly decline. Today the U.S. produces only 38 percent of the oil it consumes. It is now seeking solutions such as drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. This will yield only 2 percent of U.S. annual consumption at its peak output, 25 years from now. That is unlikely to make even a small dent in the country's demand for oil. 4. The alternative energy industry has matured over the past few decades. a. Renewable energy equipment has become more reliable and economical, and installation standards are more professional. http://www. planning. org/policyguides/ energy .htrn Page J or u 10/1/2007 tmergy b. There are a number of promising alternatives for electricity production including solar, wind, and alternative fuels that provide a balance of economic and environmental benefits. 5. Fair share or other equitable approaches are needed for siting energy generation and distribution facilities, and land-use plans and policies need to provide flexibility and guidance for communities involved in development of new energy sources. a. Potential sites are increasingly difficult to locate and approve due to environmental, land-use, social equity, and operational requirements. b. Utility-scale renewable energy development is raising new siting and land-use issues. c. The development of both renewable and non-renewable sources of energy presents specific challenges to the communities involved, including permitting and zoning of facilities and support industries, provision of appropriate infrastructure, and worker housing . 6. The way we plan urban areas significantly affects the energy usage of individual building sites. Appropriate site design standards and building codes can encourage energy conservation and the use of renewable energy technologies on site. a. Most existing building codes ignore such considerations as latitude, elevation, microclimate, and building proportions, orientation, and size. This frequently results in requirements for excessive use of energy in buildings. b.The use of renewable energy equipment such as photovoltaic panels and solar water heaters is frequently discouraged in housing development covenants because people assume they will be unattractive. c. Energy professionals have developed a substantial number of technologies, policies, and education programs that promote sustainable use of energy resources. Many local government entities have received grants to incorporate energy efficiency and renewable energy into schools and other government facilities, and to increase public transportation. These projects have helped raise awareness of clean energy alternatives and have made these options visible to the public. In brief, there is evidence to suggest that in the absence of federal leadership, throughout the U.S. resource-efficient energy policy is being envisioned and formulated by consensus at the state, county, http://www. planning. org/poli cyguides/ energy .htm Page 4of17 10/1/2007 Energy and municipal levels. III. GENERAL POLICY STATEMENTS Thus, in summary, APA supports the following policy position and specific policy statements: POLICY POSITION: APA and its Chapters recognize regional, community, and site planning and design as central and integral determinants of our nation's energy future and overall well-being. In response, APA and its Chapters endorse managing energy consumption and encouraging efficiency by modifying development patterns, architecture, and the design of household, commercial, transportation, and industrial technologies to reduce energy demand, and by forecasting the energy demand of long range land-use plans and strategies, and mitigating the impacts of that demand. Furthermore, APA and its Chapters endorse supply side investments, subsidies, policies, and education that support clean energy fuels, renewable energy sources, zero-waste distribution systems, and the decommissioning of hazardous energy sources. IV. SPECIFIC POLICY INITIATIVES POLICY STATEMENT 1: APA and its Chapters encourage planners and decision makers to evaluate the effects of plans, programs, and policies on energy usage, and to determine how to reduce energy impacts by making more efficient use of all energy resources. Initiative 1: Reduce energy consumption through comprehensive planning and urban design that incorporates strategies for both mobile and non-mobile energy efficiency. (Reference: APA Smart Growth Policy Guide and APA Policy Guide on Surface Transportation ) Reasons to support Initiative 1: City planning and design that focus on efficient use of land resources for roads and infrastructure and that limit low density areas and segregated land uses can contribute significantly to lower energy consumption . Planners can directly affect the manner in which communities are designed and laid out. Therefore, planners can affect the amount of energy consumed in the construction, maintenance, and operation of their communities, and in the daily lives of community residents and businesses. Comprehensive and general plans should include land-use policies crafted to reduce energy consumption . At the same time energy conservation should be the basis for http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htm Page 5 ot l I 10/1/2007 bnergy implementation strategies and programs. Initiative 2: Provide technical assistance for the development of guidelines and codes for energy-efficient site planning and building methodologies that take advantage of the energy flows of the natural environment. Reasons to support Initiative 2: Even though information about solar energy and other renewable energy sources has been available for decades, and demonstration sites and buildings have shown the potential for significant savings in energy use, these methods are still not part of mainstream design and construction. Buildings continue to be built that rely entirely on mechanical heating, lighting, and cooling systems regardless of environmental conditions. Development of rules and regulations that allow and encourage energy-efficient and environmentally sensitive design of buildings will have the potential to lower energy costs and reduce the country's dependence on foreign energy sources. APA encourages discussion with building code officials to ensure that local land-use standards are consistent with industry-wide construction and safety standards. Initiative 3: Support programs to increase energy efficiency and reduce life-cycle costs of all construction projects, including public and institutional projects. Initiative 4: Support federal, state, and local programs that reward energy savings rather than consumption through incentives, appropriate subsidies, and regulation. Reasons to support Initiative 4: Currently tax incentives and sales tax programs promote the consumption of energy rather than lower usage and conservation of energy. By reviewing and revising these current tax incentives with utility providers, planners can play a role in promoting conservation of energy, thereby reducing the associated environmental damages. Initiative 5: Continue to support the Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) and the Weatherization Assistance Program as means towards greater energy conservation. Reasons to support Initiative 5: Energy conservation is a top priority and the most important component of a sound energy program. This is particularly important for low-and moderate-income persons, who benefit from both technical and financial assistance in implementing low-and no-cost methods for conserving energy in their homes. http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htm Page 6of17 10/1/2007 Energy For instance, a full funding of a weatherization program requires a relatively small capital investment yet can go a long way to reducing LIHEAP expenditures in our most energy inefficient homes over the long-term. Initiative 6: Support education, incentives, and subsidies that reduce consumption at the individual level. Reasons to support Initiative 6: There are many programs aimed at reducing individual energy consumption, such as EnergyStar Rating Programs, home insulation, energy leakage tracking programs, smart technologies, and hybrid or electric vehicles. Incentives or legislation at the local level for more efficient use of energy can greatly promote the awareness and use of these programs. Many states have public benefits programs that direct ratepayer dollars into efficiency and renewable energy incentives programs. At the federal level there are a number of programs that can benefit communities and individuals including Zero- Energy Homes and Million Solar Roofs (DOE), and Fannie Mae energy-efficient mortgages. Initiative 7: Increase the corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards. Reasons to support Initiative 7: Given the high percentage of energy consumption for transportation, it is important to achieve as much fuel economy as possible in that sector. Average fleet fuel efficiency has actually decreased in recent years. The technology exists to increase efficiency. APA supports efforts that require automobile manufacturers to meet ever-increasing CAFE standards without impacting safety or convenience as it has wide-ranging benefits from less fuel consumption to reduced air pollution. POLICY STATEMENT 2: APA and its Chapters support legislation that will help to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and stimulate the development of renewable energy resources. Initiative 8: Develop and encourage appropriate applications of renewable energy. Reasons to support Initiative 8: Renewable energy is a means of attaining sustainability because it decreases dependence on fossil fuels and nuclear energy. However, renewable energy comes from a variety of sources, and different technologies are appropriate in different climates and circumstances. There are a number of promising alternatives for electricity http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htrn Yage / or i / 10/1/2007 .cm::rgy production that include solar and wind power and alternative fuels that promise to provide a balance of economic and environmental benefits. Planners are in a position to work with utility providers to plan for the land-use and infrastructure requirements of renewable energy production such that they only minimally impact the environment. Initiative 9: Support utilization of on-site, distributed generation technologies. Reasons to support Initiative 9: Some electric utilities are exploring the concept of moving away from large, centralized power stations designed to meet computer-projected demand, toward a diverse system that responds more directly to local needs. Distributed generation systems essentially generate electricity to be used on site, with any surplus power being fed back into the grid. These systems can be large or small and can use either renewable or fossil fuel power. Possible systems range from a set of solar panels on the roof of a home, to a small hydropower plant on a river, to a natural gas-powered micro-turbine at an industrial plant. One important advantage of a distributed generation system is its close proximity to the user. Transmission requirements are reduced, as are the power losses that occur over long distance lines. Distributed generation is also an important trend, both for generation flexibility and energy security. a. APA encourages discussion with building code officials to ensure that local land-use standards proactively encourage the installation of renewable energy technologies. b. Local incentive programs, such as subsidies can also support many of these more environmentally friendly distributed energy resources, at long- term savings for the consumer. c. Smart growth planning could provide the forum for planners to broker open discussions between utilities and their customers regarding distributed renewable energy generation. Initiative 10: Support the adoption of consistent initiatives by state Public Regulatory Commissions nationwide for net metering, renewable energy portfolio standards, and the establishment of public benefits funds that encourage all customer sectors to conserve energy and invest in renewable sources. http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htm Page 8of17 1011 /2007 Energy Reasons to support Initiative 10: Utility regulation is a state-level function, and there are currently a wide variety of rules and requirements among states regarding the promotion of renewable energy and distributed generation technologies as part of the nation's energy supply. At present, most states allow net metering, 4 but requirements and guidelines are inconsistent, even within individual states themselves. Ten states have renewable energy portfolio standards in place, but requirements and deadlines vary. Another 10 states have some form of renewable energy power purchase obligations established. Public benefits programs are usually created as part of a utility restructuring effort, and they also vary widely by state. The energy efficiency and renewable energy programs are generally only a small part of the overall restructuring package. Much could be done. Local and state APA chapters could establish an energy sub-committee to track the renewable energy policies and regulations of their state's utility regulatory commission, and keep abreast of statewide efficiency targets and renewable energy portfolios. Municipal and county planners can work with their state energy office to promote public education programs about green power and distributed generation. POLICY STATEMENT 3: APA and its Chapters support the adoption of legislation and regulations that require the planning and evaluation of decisions regarding energy production, distribution, and use to mitigate associated adverse impacts. Initiative 11: Develop procedures and standards to ensure that siting decisions for energy generation, transmission, and distribution facilities will be evaluated to ensure consistency with community and regional development objectives, and the overall protection of public health, safety, and the environment. Reasons to support Initiative 11 : The environmental impacts and other potential hazards of electricity generation and distribution may take years and huge investments to mitigate. Nevertheless, many energy facility siting and system design decisions are not subjected to the same comprehensive planning process and environmental evaluation that is required for other land-use decisions. Planners should be involved in the development of local and regional public health, safety, design (particularly in redeveloping areas and scenic corridors), and environmental standards and hazard http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htm Page '::J or l / 10/1/2007 tmergy mitigation planning for power generation and distribution facilities to reduce their potential damage to the environment and achieve local and regional development objectives. These, in addition to the regular safety and maintenance precautions energy companies carry out, can help to reduce energy waste and as well as greatly minimize potential risks and damage to the a community. Large power plants are often located in or near rural communities that rely heavily upon the taxes they generate to fund local government and schools. Such communities should be targeted for intensive ongoing planning expertise (that their local economies may not be able to afford) to help mitigate known and potential impacts. Additionally, these communities would benefit from economic development expertise to deal with the job losses and brownfields when their fossil or nuclear power plants make way for transition to other more sustainable sources. Initiative 12: Recognize that providing transportation options and good urban form design is the first step to changing pollution intensive choices for mobility. Actively promote alternative transportation modes through the planning and implementation of bicycle and pedestrian pathways and transit systems. Reasons to support Initiative 12: During the past century, the automobile has raised per capita consumption of both energy and space, thereby altering the form of 21st century American communities more than any other single variable. With cross-generational subsidies further hiding the costs of this technology, other choices for mobility quickly disappeared. Yet over the past few decades, it has been shown that with appropriate subsidization of transit and incentives for pedestrian and bike paths, people have been changing their mobility choices. People have been voluntarily selecting travel modes that are much less energy intensive and pollute less per capita than a single-occupied vehicle. Initiative 13: Develop community based lighting design guidelines that promote energy efficiency and safety while reducing light pollution or "sky-glow," light trespass on adjacent properties, and glare. Reasons to support Initiative 13: Since lighting in American communities is typically designed to attract attention or to limit safety liability, it is frequently excessive and poorly designed, sending half of the light directly skyward where it is of little use. These excess lumens create light pollution and waste significant amounts of energy. It has http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htm Page 10of17 10/1/2007 Energy been estimated that a community of 100,000 people could save more than $500,000 per year through improved lighting design. For safety reasons too, light levels need to be maintained within a certain range, as over-lighting creates problems for drivers who pass through brightly lit areas and are blinded as they pass back into darker areas. Over-lighting creates glare directly from the fixture, temporarily impairing vision. Light trespass, defined as unwanted light shining on adjacent property, clearly is inefficient and has a negative impact on the enjoyment and value of the affected adjacent property. Community lighting guidelines need to address lighting that promotes "true color" in the physical environment, or the color seen by natural light. True color representation is necessary for efficient and effective crime prevention and detection. Lighting approaching true color also is important to enable EMS personnel to identify blood, oil, and other substances when attending an accident. APA and its Chapters recommends working with the International Dark-Sky Association (IDA), the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), and the International Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Association (CPTED) through their respective United States affiliates to recommend/establish community based and energy efficient lighting design options. Planners can also work with the state to establish statewide lighting standards for public spaces and thoroughfares. Initiative 14: Continue to reduce the negative environmental impacts of current fossil fuel extraction and electricity generation through research, technology, and community involvement. Reasons to support Initiative 14: The United States relies primarily on fossil fuel energy to generate electricity. However, the production and combustion of fossil fuels has tremendous impacts on air, water, and soil quality, which, in turn, can negatively affect the health of humans and other species as well as harming the earth's atmosphere. Despite the fact that stringent regulations have led to an ongoing decrease in pollution levels in the U.S. since the 1970s (with the notable exception of C02), pollution levels continue to rise because demand for all forms of energy continues to grow due to both population growth and increasing per capita consumption. The problem is compounded by the complexities of enforcing the Clean Air Act and other regulatory standards. http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htin Page l l or i / 10/1/2007 tmergy Transportation, stationary source combustion (primarily fossil fuel power plants), and industrial process emissions compose the bulk of anthropogenic sources of air pollution. Air pollution is implicated in a variety of health and atmospheric problems including respiratory disease and cancer, acid rain, ozone depletion, and global warming. Pollutants produced when fuel is burned to generate electricity include nitrogen oxides (NOx), which contribute to ozone (smog), fine-particle soot and acid rain; sulfur dioxide (502), which contributes to fine-particle soot and acid rain; mercury, which is released to the air and deposited on land and water resources, concentrating in edible fish populations; and carbon dioxide (C02), which contributes to the greenhouse effect and climate modification. Initiative 15: Support the development of new renewable energy technologies and endorse an unbiased evaluation of their environmental impacts. Reasons to support Initiative 15: A wide variety of new renewable energy technologies are in development, primarily ways to harness energy from organic or biomass sources. Also, traditional renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and hydropower continue to be refined. While renewable energy technologies show great promise for sustainable use, it is important that they be objectively evaluated for their impacts on the social and natural environment. Controversial questions have already been raised about the social impacts of siting wind turbines, the health impacts of burning biofuels, or the wisdom of promoting a hydrogen fuel cell future when either fossil or renewable energy must be used to produce the hydrogen. Initiative 16: The continued generation of electrical power from nuclear energy is a part of the mix of power sources, and while APA recognizes the benefits offered by nuclear energy, it advocates that the social and environmental concerns applicable to to the siting and operating nuclear power plants , as well as the transportation and disposal of nuclear wastes continue to be addressed. Reason to support Initiative 16: The nation's 102 nuclear power plants supply 20 percent of all electrical power in the U.S. Nuclear power has a safety record that is better than coal-fired plants per megawatt hour and does not result in the production of greenhouse gases . Reactors can also be designed to "burn" up weapons grade materials le~ over http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htm Page 12 of17 1011/2007 Energy from the Cold War. Most of the commercial nuclear power plants now operating will likely seek relicensing to allow continued operation for another 20 years. These plants must undergo a rigorous safety and environmental review by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission before being granted a renewal. These plants are often located in or near rural communities that rely heavily upon the taxes they generate to fund local government and schools. Such communities should be targeted for intensive ongoing planning expertise (that their local economies may not be able to afford) to help mitigate known and potential impacts of nuclear plants. Additionally, these communities would benefit from economic development expertise to deal with the job losses and brownfields when their nuclear energy plants make way for transition to other more sustainable sources. POLICY STATEMENT 4: APA and its Chapters should work to promote environmental equity and justice with regard to energy production and distribution, and to assist communities with meeting the challenges inherent in the development of new energy resources. Initiative 17: Recognize that while energy is a commodity for sale and consumption, it is also a national resource that must be equitably managed. Reasons to support Initiative 17: The availability of energy is central to the functioning of our communities, yet the current management and distribution of energy has created great economic vulnerabilities. Making energy resources more affordable, with more stable pricing, and available to everyone in the community will require partnerships -governments, utility companies, private energy enterprises, and interest groups. Initiative 18: Integrate community energy efficiency goals into the "Smart Growth" planning process. Reasons to support Initiative 18: Planners in both urban and rural communities interested in "smart growth" should recognize the importance of integrating energy efficiency and energy resource management goals into their planning process. A plan for energy efficiency would address energy used for municipal services and infrastructure such as water and sewage treatment and street lighting, public buildings and facilities, and commercial, residential, and industrial uses. Initiative 19: Develop a fair share siting process for http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htin Page u or l t 10/1 /2007 energy energy generation and distribution facilities that reflects sound environmental practice and does not place undue environmental justice burdens on any one community. (Reference: Policy Guide on Locally Unwanted Land Uses) Reasons to support Initiative 19: There is a need to address environmental justice issues that emerge with the siting or maintenance of electrical generation and transmission facilities, fuel storage facilities, and other potential health hazards related to energy production and use. All stakeholders in the community should be involved in the formulation of appropriate solutions. The location of existing and new energy facilities should be part of a comprehensive planning process, which includes the opportunity for meaningful public participation and public consensus. New facilities should be consistent with local land-use plans and meet the most rigorous standards to protect the environment. A clearly defined process is needed to establish priorities and requirements and identify participants/stakeholders in siting of new energy facilities. The process should ensure compliance with all applicable local, state, and federal regulations governing such issues as air quality, water/wetlands, land use, noise, cultural and natural resources, public health and safety, and other environmental issues in addition to ensuring that environmental justice issues are addressed. The location of energy facilities should be part of a comprehensive planning process, which includes the opportunity for meaningful public participation and public consensus, in advance of the "public hearing to announce the new plant" scenario. The process also needs to ensure that a "fair" decision is ultimately made and ensure that energy generation facilities are not being disproportionately placed in low-income and minority communities. Planners should ensure and facilitate the involvement of the entire community, including low-income and minority populations, in the siting of energy facilities Initiative 20: Support efforts to include energy efficiency in all affordable housing guidelines. Reasons to support Initiative 20: Affordable housing programs make home ownership available to eligible low-and moderate-income families. The cost of owning a home, however, includes both the mortgage and the ongoing operational expenses, primarily the energy costs. Homes that are built for participants in affordable housing programs should be designed and built for energy efficiency to assure affordable energy bills as well. Energy efficiency is particularly important in keeping affordable http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htrn Page 14of17 1011 /2007 Energy Notes housing stock affordable. Particular attention should be placed on upgrading appliances, windows, doors, heating systems, and insulation in those units occupied by households that might not otherwise be able to make these improvements on their own. The ability to afford heating and cooling is an issue that affects inner cities and rural areas alike. Low-and moderate-income persons pay a disproportionate amount of their annual family budget on heating and/or cooling their homes. Typically, this comes at the sacrifice of other necessary household expenditures. If people forego heating and cooling, substantial health impacts will arise. Initiative 21: Recognize that energy generation is also an economic development activity and plan adequately for all aspects of an energy generation and production facility and its workers. Reasons to support Initiative 21: Land-use plans and regulations should recognize and accommodate the types of development that support the various stages of energy related growth. For communities that are confronted with energy production, their land-use plans and policies should accommodate new energy growth through mechanisms such as flexible zoning regulations . Land-use plans should also be reviewed for sufficient developed and zoned industrial areas to accommodate support industry. In addition, the community plans and zoning regulations may need to address temporary housing for the facility's construction workers. l. "U.S. Energy Consumption Patterns," Energy Information Administration, www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/iea/wec.html. Internet, accessed July 2002. 2. Hawken, Paul, Amory B. Lovins, and L. Hunter Lovins. Natural Capitalism: Creating The Next Industrial Revolution. Boston: Little, Brown, & Company. 1999. p. 85. 3. Ibid., p. 264. 4. Net metering allows the owner of a distributed generation system to direct surplus power back to the grid when their system is generating more power than they require, and draw from it when more is needed, generally at the same retail rate. While accessibility to interconnection is mandated at the federal level, net-metering rules and allowances vary widely from state to state. Appendix A: Energy Efficiency Opportunities httn ://www.planning.org/po licyguides/ energy .htrn Page Dorl / 1011/2007 bnergy Opportunities exist to improve energy efficiency in number of different sectors: 1. Residential a. Structural materials and design, HVAC systems, and site orientation of single-and multifamily homes b. Home appliances, electronics, and lighting c. Power tools and landscaping equipment 2. Commercial and institutional a. Structural materials and design, HVAC systems, and site orientation of office buildings, retail, and other commercial buildings, government buildings, and facilities (including schools) b. Office electronics and equipment, food service equipment, commercial business equipment, building maintenance and landscaping equipment, institutional and commercial lighting, hospital and medical equipment, municipal wastewater and solid waste management equipment 3. Industrial a. Structural materials and design, HVAC systems, and site orientation of industrial buildings and facilities b. Industrial process equipment, materials handling equipment, process monitoring systems c. On-site electric generators 4. Agricultural a. Structural materials and design, HVAC systems, and site orientation of agricultural buildings and facilities b. Food processing and refrigerated storage equipment c. Planting and harvesting equipment, agricultural waste management equipment 5. Transportation a. Vehicles i. All private, commercial, and government-owned vehicles used primarily for transportation including automobiles, vans, trucks, buses, RVs ii. Construction and road-building equipment, road maintenance equipment http://www.planning.org/policyguides/energy.htm Page 16of17 10/1 /?007 Energy b. Road engineering i. Traffic lights and timing ii. Lighted road signs iii. Integration of public transportation c. Municipal transportation planning i. Public Transportation ii. Bicycle paths iii. Urban walkability 6. Infrastructure a. Utility distribution systems including transmission and pipelines b. Municipal and utility infrastructure planning Additionally, one can target improved efficiency at four different levels. 7. Level One: Individual -through improved appliance design (rated by the EnergyStar program), building design (through double and triple pane windows where appropriate, energy leakage tracking programs, appropriate building siting, and arrangement of glass and ventilation systems), change in usage behavior 8. Level Two: System design -support research that reduces leakages through transmission, provide technology sources closer to the user 9. Level Three: Land-use distribution and community design -by reducing need for vehicular trips, excessive lighting, and encouraging energy efficient building designs. 10. Level Four: Alternative and realistic choices for mobility -through the use of transit, walking/biking, and other less consumptive habits Contact Us Privacy Statement Sitemap FAQ En Espanol Copyright 2007 APA All Rights Reserved httn://www.olanning.org/policyguides/energy.htm Page l I OI l I 10/1/2007 A National Analysis of Physical Activity, Obesity and Chronic Disease A National Analysis of Physical Activity, Obesity and Chronic Disease Barbara A. Mccann Reid Ewing Smart Growth America Surface Transportation Policy Project SEPTEMBER 2003 Acknowledgements Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis of Physical Activity, Obesity, and Chronic Disease was written by Barbara A. McCann and Reid Ewing. Additional data analysis was provided by Michelle Ernst, Linda Bailey, and John Pucher. The sprawl index used in this study was developed with assistance from Rolf Pendall of Cornell University and John Ottensmann of Indiana University. Editorial suggestions and general advice were provided by Don Chen, David Goldberg, Thomas Schmid, Richard Killingsworth, Teri Larson, Chuck Alexander, Je nnifer Hudman, Susan Krutt, Kathryn Thomas, and Kate Kraft. Images were provided by Lawrence Frank a nd Michael Ronkin. The authors would also like to thank Rutgers University, the Surface Transportation Policy Project, and Smart Growth America (SGA) for their longstanding support. Support for this project was provided by a grant from The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation in Princeton, New Jersey. Additional funding and resources were a lso provided by Smart Growth America, which is supported by the Surdna Foundation, the George M. Gund Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the Fannie Mae Foundation, the David and Lu cile Packard Foundation, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, the Henry M. Jackson Foundation, the Turner Foundation, the Prince Charitable Trusts, the Joyce Foundation. Copies of Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl can be obtained at Smart Growth America's website, www.smartgrowthamerica.org. Hard copies can be obtained for $15 by calling or writing SGA, 1200 1s1h St. NW Suite SOI, Washington DC 20036, (202) 207· 3350, or by emailing sga@smartgrowthamerica.org. Barbara A. McCann, former Director of Information and Research at Smart Growth Am erica, is a writer and public policy expert on the impact of the built environment on public health and quality of life. She can be reached at Barbara@bmccann.net. Reid Ewing is Research Professor at the National Center for Smart Growth, University of Maryland. This research was conducted while Professor Ewing was Director of the Voorhees Transportation Center at Rutgers Un iversity. Table of Contents Executive Summary ................................................................................................................. 1 I.Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 5 II. How the Study Was Done .................................................................................................. 9 Ill. Findings: How Sprowl Relates to Weight, Physical Activity, and Chronic Disease ............................................................................ 13 IV. The Need for Further Research ..................................................................................... 23 V. Considering Hea lth When We Plan Our Communities ............................................. 25 App endix .................................................................................................................................. 31 Executive Summary H ea Ith experts agree: most Americans are too sedentary and weigh too mu ch. Obesity has reached epidemic levels, and diseases associated with inactivity are also on the rise. What is creating this public health crisis? Much of the focus to date has been on whether Americans are eating too much fattening food. But researchers are starting to pay attention to the other half of the weight-gain equation: Am erica ns' low levels of physical activity. A pressing question for public health officials is whether the design of our communities makes it more difficult for people to get physical activity and maintain a healthy weight. This report presents the first national study to show a clear association between the type of place people live and their activity levels, weight, and health. The study, Relationship Between Urban Sprawl and Physical Activity, Obesity, and Morbidity, found that people living in counties marked by sprawling development are likely to walk less and weigh more than people who live in less sprawling counties. In addition, people in more sprawling counties are more like ly to s uffer from hypertension (high blood pressure). These results hold true after controlling for factors such as age, education, gender, and race and ethnicity. Researchers measured the degree of sprawl with a county 'sprawl index' that used data available from the US Census Bureau and other federal sources to quantify development patterns in 448 counties in urban areas across the United States. Counties with a higher degree of sprawl received a lower numerical value on the index, and county sprawl index scores range from 63 for the most sprawling county to 352 for the least sprawling cou nty. Sprawling counties are spread-out areas wh ere homes are far from any other destination, and often the only route between the two may be on a The findings presented here are from the article, Relationship Between Urban Sprawl and Physical Activity, Obesity and Morbidity, by Reid Ewing, Tom Schmid, Richard Killingsworth, Amy Zlot, and Stephen Raudenbush, published in the September 2003 issue of the American Journal of Health Promotion. This report is intended to make this important piece of research more accessible to the general public. In addition to presenting research findings, this report summarizes recent research done by others on the links between the way we've built our communities, physical activity, and health. It also includes recommendations for change and resources for those interested in further exploration of this topic. 2 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis e 0 v V> ~ Q. V> t:;-c: ::> 0 u busy high-speed arterial road that is unpleasant or even unsafe for biking or walking. People who live in these areas may find that driving is the most convenient way to get everything done, and they are less likely to have easy opportunities to walk, bicycle, or take transit as part of their daily routine. Indeed, previous research has shown that people living in sprawling areas drive more, while people living in compact communities are more likely to walk. Medical research has shown that walking and similar moderate physical activity is important to maintaining healthy weight and bestows many other health benefits. What is groundbreaking about this study is that it is the first national study to establish a direct association between the form of the community and the health of the people who live there. Analysis shows sprawl is linked to health The study compared the county sprawl index to the health characteristics of more than 200,000 individuals living in the 448 counties studied, using a large national health survey, the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), which is maintained by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The results show that people in more FIG URE L Sprawl and Weight Exp ect ed Weig ht for a s'i ' Ad ult (lbs.) sprawling counties are likely to have a higher body mass index (BM I), a standard measure of weight-to-height that is used to determine if people are overweight or obese. A so-point increase in the degree of sprawl on the county sprawl index was associated with a weight gain of just over one pound for the average person. Looking at the extremes, the people living in the most sprawling areas are likely to weigh six pounds more than people in t he most compact county. Expected differences in weight for an average person living in different counties are shown in Figure I, left. Obesity, defined as a BM I of 30 or higher, followed a similar pattern. The odds that a county resident will be obese rises ten percent with every so-point increase in the degree of sprawl on the county sprawl index. so Walton County Hanover County Clay County 100 Delaware County 150 Suffolk County 200 Queens County 250 Kings County 300 350 400 more sprawling Geauga County Isanti County El Dorado County McHenry County Cook County San Francisco County Bronx County New York County less sprawling The study also found a direct relationship between sprawl and chronic disease. The odds of having hypertension, or high blood pressure, are six percent higher for every so- point increase in the degree of sprawl. The 2s most sprawling counties had average ) Smart Growth America • STPP • 3 hypertension rates of 25 per 100 while the 25 least sprawling had hypertension rates of 23 per 100. The researchers did not find any st atistically significant association between community design and diabetes or cardiovascular disease. While all three chronic conditions are associated with being inactive and overweight, many other factors including heredity may moderate the relationship between sprawl and chronic diseases. FIG URE 2. Sprawl and Blood Pressure Percent of Adult Population with Hyp ertension 21% 20% 11% 10% 1% 0% 21 Molt Compact Counti!l 21 Mo1t Sprawling Counti's People in sprawling areas walk less for exercise, which may help exp lai n the higher obesity levels. But routine daily activity, such as walking for errands, may have a bigger role. When the researchers controlled for the amount of walking for exercise that people reported, they found that people in more sprawling counties weigh more whether or not Source: BRFSS Hypertension rates, weighted by county (1998·2000). they walk for exerc ise. This suggests that people in sprawling areas may be missing out on significant health benefits that are available s im ply by walking, biking, climbing sta irs, and getting physical activity as part of everyday life. These results point toward the need to continue investigating how our communities may be affecting our health. Additional studies are needed to better understand the relationship between sprawling development and the risk of being overweight, and to more precisely measure physical activity. People living in counties marked by sprawling development are likely to walk less, weigh more, and are more likely to have high blood pressure. Creating Healthy Communities We know that people would like to have more opportunities to walk and bicycle: recent national polls fou nd t hat 55 percent of Americans would like to walk more instead of driving, and 52 percent would like to bicycle more. Leaders looking to reshape their communities to make it easier to walk and bicycle have many options. They can invest in improved facilities for biking and walking, install traffic calming measures to slow down cars, or create Safe Routes to School programs that focus on helping kids walk and bike to school. Th ey also can create more walkable communities by focusing development around transit stops, retrofitting sprawlin g neighborhoods, and 4 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis revitalizing older neighborhoods that are already wa lkable. When paired with progra ms that educate people about the be nefits of walking, these changes can help increase physical activity. Addressing these issues is essentia l both for personal health and for the long-term health of our communities. Physical inactivity and being overweight a re factors in over 200,000 premature deaths each year. The director of the CDC recently said obesity might soon overta ke tobacco as the nation's number-one health threat. Meanwhile, rising health care costs are threatening state budgets_ Getting decision makers to consider how the billions spent on transportation and development can make communities more wa lkable and bikeable is one avenue to improving t he health and quality of life of millions of Am ericans_ Getting decision makers to consider how the billions spent on transportation and development can make communities more walkab le and bikeable is one avenue to improving the health and quality of life of millions of Americans. Oregon Department of Transportation, Pedestrian & Bicycle Program I. Introduction Mor e Than a Personal Problem W eight loss is an American obsession, one t hat has played out almost exclusively Jt the individual level. Di et books and programs are ubiquitous, and each January gyms burst with new members determined to stick to their New Year's resolutions. Yet the American waistline has continued to expand at an alarming rate, and obesity has been declared an epidemic.' Recent data from a national survey fo und that almost 65 percent of the adult population is overweig ht and almost one in three people is obese.' In the past 25 years, the portion of children 6 -11 who are overweight has doubled, while the port io n of overweight teens has tripled: now 15 percent of children and teenagers aged 6 to 19 are overweight.3 And this epidemic is far from a cosmetic concern: being overweight is a contributing factor to many chronic FIGURE 3. Ob esity' Among U.S. Adults *BMl~JO or -Jolbs overweight for a 5'4" woman Portion of Adult Population Obese • 10%-14% • 15%-19% • 20%-24% D s24% Source: Mokdad AH, et al. J Am Med Assoc 2001;286:1 0. 6 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis ~ 20% .D 0 e "' _g 15% 3: ::i :; -g 0 10% 5% 0% diseases and conditions, including hypert ension, type-2 diabetes, colon cancer, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, and coronary heart disease.• Th e director of the CDC recently said that obesity and physical inactivity are gaining on tobacco and may soon overtake t obacco as the nation's number one health threat.5 While Am ericans t raditio nally have seen weight as a personal concern, public health advocat es have begun looking at how factors beyond our personal control may be making it ha rd er to stay fit. Mu ch of the public debate around obesity has focused on the constant availability of fattening s nacks, the 'super sizing' of portions, and the marketing practices of fast-food restaurants. Now, health advocates a re lo o king to our physical surroundings as a contributo r to weight gain as well: If the environment is making it too easy to overeat, might there be something a bout our communities that is making it t oo difficult to get the physical activity needed to stay fit? Physical Activity and Sprawl There is good reason to suspect that a lack of physical activity is contributing t o obesity and other health problems. Three in four Am ericans report that they do not get enough exercise to meet the recommended minimum of either 20 minutes of strenuous activity three days a week or 30 minutes of moderate activity five days a week.6 About one in four Americans remains completely inactive during t heir leisure time. Yet these alarming statistics are not new. Reported exercise levels have remained steady for decades.1 What may be changing is t he amou nt of physical activity people get in the course of everyday life. People move about as part of doing their jobs, taking ca re of their homes and fa milies, and especially as they travel from place to place. FIG URE 4 . Trend in Adult Obesity, 1991-2001 One hint that this type of movement may be in decline comes from a recent poll that fo und t hat while 71 percent of pa rents of school-aged child ren walked or biked to school when 1991 1995 1999 2001 they were young, only 18 percent of their children do so.• Also, according to the US Census, between 1990 and 2000 the portion of working Americans who walked to work dropped from 3.9 t o 2.9 percent. Source: National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, CDC. BRFSS data 1991-2001. Preliminary studies show that the movement from compact ne ighborhoods to spread-out, a utomob ile-depen dent Smart Growth America • STPP • 7 communities has meant a decline FIGURE 5. Fewer Chi ldren are Walkin g to School Percentage of children who now walk or bicycle to school Percentage of adults who walked or bicycled to school 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% in daily physical activity. A common denominator of modern sprawling communities is that nothing is within easy walking distance of a nything else. Houses are far from any services, stores, or businesses; wide, hi gh-speed roads are perceived as dangerous a nd unpleasant for walking; and businesses are surrounded by vast parking lots. In s uc h e nv ironments, few people try to walk or bicycle to reach destinations. Urba n planning research shows that 'urban form' - the way streets are laid out, the distance between destinations, Source: Surface Transportation Policy Project. American Attitudes Toward Walking and Creating Better Walking Communities. April 2003. the mix of homes a nd stores -is li nked to physical activity because it influences whether people must drive o r are able to choose more physically active travel, s uch as walking.• Even as routine physica l activity seems to be declining, recognition of its importance is growing in the public health community. Evide nce is mountin g that m oderate activity ca n have a significant impact on health, a n impact that goes far beyond weight control. People who a re active are less likely to s uffer from co ronary heart disease, non-ins ulin dependent diabetes, high blood pressure, or to get colon A common denominator of modern sprawlinq communities is that nothinq is within easy walkinq distance of anythinq else. Houses are far from any services, stores, or businesses; wide, hiqh-speed roads are p erceived as danq erous and unpleasant for walkinq; and businesses are surrounded by vast parkinq lots. Oregon Department of Transportation, Pedestrian & Bicycle Program 8 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis or pancreatic cancer. Physical activity helps relieve the sympt oms of arthritis, and can help lift depression, relieve anxiety, and result in an overall improvement in mood a nd well-being. Public health researchers have just begun to conduct research on how the built environment affect s physical activity.10·" They are asking: Have we "engineered" movement out of our daily lives to such a degree that our neighborhoods are now contributing to the obesity epidemic and other health problems?'6 This study is an important step toward answerin g t his question because it is t he first rigorous nationwid e investigation of the potential relationship between urban form, physical activity, and health. II. How the Study Was Done T his report is bcised on ci study that required an intensive and unus ual col laborat io n between urba n planning researchers and public health 1·csearchers. Re id Ewing, then at Rutgers University and now Research Professor at the National Center for Smart Growth, University of Ma ryla nd, was the principal investigator and s pent many months in Atl anta workin g with researchers from the CDC, finding ways for the two very different fi elds to speak a common language and design a rigorous research methodology. He worked with Tom Schmid and Amy Zlot of the Physical Activity a nd Health Branch of the CDC a nd Rich Killin gsworth of Active Living by Design at t he Univers ity of North Carolina. Statistician Stephen Ra udenbush of the Un iversity of Michigan, the nation's foremost a uthority on hierarchical modeling, provid ed valuable assistance in the statistical analysis. The first peer-reviewed article based on the study was publish ed in the September/ October 2003 issue of th e American Journal of Health Promotion. The study was an outgrowth of a project begun at the Surface Transportation Policy Project and continued at Smart Growth America to quantify spraw l and its impact on quality of life. This report is intend ed to make an important piece of res earch more accessible to the genera l public. It addition to the study findings, it includes other recent research on the degree of sprawl, phys ical activity, a nd health. For a detailed methodology of the orig ina l study, please refer to t he published article {www.Hea lthPromotionJournal.com). Urban Form Data: The cou nty sprawl index The study's urban form data is derived from a landmark study of metropolitan sprawl that Rutgers a nd Cornell Universities conducted for Sma rt Growth Am erica {SGA), a national public interest group working for s mart growth policies. Unl ike previous studies, which attempted to evaluate sprawl based o n one or two stat istics, the SGA metropolitan sprawl index uses 22 va ria bl es to characterize four 'fact ors' of sprawl for 83 of the largest metropolitan area in the US for the year 2000. Th e s prawl 'scores' for each metropolitan area show how much they spread out housing, segregate homes from other places, have only weak cente rs of activity, and have poorly connected street networks. Th e factor scores, along with an overall sprawl index for the metro areas, represent the most comprehensive, academically rigorous quantification of sprawl in 10 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis TABLE 1. County Sprawl Ind ex Variables FACTOR VARIABLE SOURCE Residential Dens ity Gross population density in persons per US Census square mile Percentage of population living at densities US Census less than 1,500 persons per square mile (low suburban density) Percentage of population living at densities US Census greater than 12,500 persons per square mile (urban density that begins t o be transit supportive) Net population density of urban lands USDA Natural Resources Inventory Connectivity of the Average block size in square miles Census TIGE Street Network files Percentage of small blocks Census TIGER (~ 0 .01 square mile) files the United Stat es. The first report based on t his research, Measuring Sprawl and Its Impact, was released in October 2002 and can be fou nd at Smart Growth America's websit e, www.smart growthamerica.org. For this study, however, researchers wanted a finer grain of information: while the sprawl index measures sprawl ac ross an entire metropolitan region, residential a nd health data are available at the county level. So they used relevant data from the metropolitan sprawl study to create a county-level index that scores 448 counties. Beca use fewer data are available at the county level, the index is less comprehensive than t he metropolitan index, but is nevertheless the most complete measurement of sprawl available at the county level. The county sprawl index uses s ix variables from the US Census and the Department of Agricu lture's Natural Resources Inventory to accou nt for residential density and street accessibility (for more information, see the published paper). A review of the county sprawl index shows that the most sprawling counties in urban regions in the US tend to be outlying counties of smaller metropolitan areas in the Southeast and Midwest. Goochla nd County in the Richmond, Virginia metro area, and Clinton County in the Lan s in g, Michigan region, received very low numerical scores on the index, indicating a high degree of sprawl. At the most compact end of the scale are four New York City boroughs; San Fr ancisco County; Hudson County (Jersey City, NJ); Ph iladelphia County; and Suffolk County (Boston). Falling near t he median a re central counties of low-density metro areas, such as Mecklenburg County in the Charlotte, NC area; counties of small metro a reas, such as Allen County in the Fort Wayne, IN area; and inner suburban counties in la rge metros s uch as Washington County in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area. Smart Growth America • STPP •11 Counties with a higher degree of sprawl received a lower numerical value on the index. County s prawl scores ranged from the highly compact 352 for Manhattan, to a very sprawling score of 6 3 for Geauga County outside of Clevela nd, Ohio. But Manhattan, and to a lesser degree Geauga, are outliers: most counties are clustered near the middle of the index, around the average score of 100. A complete listing of the county sprawl scores is provided in t he Appendix. Hea lth Data: The Behavioral Ri s k Factor Surveilla nce System The Behaviora l Risk Factor Surveilla nce System, or BRFSS, is the primary US source of scientific data on adult behav iors that can endanger health. The survey collects self- reported information about current health risk factors and status, and is the largest continuous telephone survey in the world. Th e BRFSS allows the CDC, which conducts the survey, to monitor national and state trends in health risk and health outcomes. (For more information about the BRFSS, see http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/about.htm.) For this study, data from 1998 to 2000 were pooled to create a database of 206,992 respondents from 448 counties. Researchers looked at the eight BR FSS variables that are be lieved to be part of the causal chain between t he physical environment and health, including health risk factors such as obesity, behaviors such as leisu re-time walking, and chronic health problems such as hypertension. Peopl e responding to such surveys tend to underestimate their weight, so the overweight and obesity levels reported may be low. Respondents were considered to have a health condition if their doctor or other health professional had 12 • Measuring the Healt h Effects of Spraw l: A National Analysis diagnosed it. Researchers also used six additional variables from the database in order to control for gender, age, race a nd ethn icity, s moking, diet, and education (as a proxy fo r income and access to health information). Analyz in g the Data The analys is conducted t o relate the BRFSS data t o t he county s prawl index was far more tha n a simple correlation. This study linked the t housands of ind ividual respondents to t heir home co unty. Th is allowed researchers t o evalu ate each individual in relation to t he degree of s prawl where they live. To account for both personal and place-related influences on behavior and health, researchers used multi-level modeling. The level 1 model looks within each count y and relat es the charact eri st ics of t he people su rveyed (such as their age, gend er, etc.) to their behavior and healt h characterist ics. Th e level 2 model takes t he level 1 relationships for each county and explains them in terms of t he county sprawl ind ex. This ki nd of modeling is often re ferred t o as hierarchical. Hierarchical or multi-level modeling is used in cases like this where respondents are not independent of one another (as assumed in ordinary modeling) but instead share cha ract eristics of a g iven place. A more detailed description of t he methodology can be fo und in the published paper. Ill. Findings How Sprawl Relates to Weight , Physical Activity, and Chronic Disease The researchers fou nd that people livi ng in sprciwli ng places were likely to weigh more, walk less, and have a greater prevalence of hypertension than people living in cou nt ies with more compact development patterns. Sprawl Is Linked to Weight This study used data on body mass index (BMI) to determine if t he degree of sprawl had a ny influence on weight. BMI is a common measurement of weight to height that reliably predicts levels of body fat (see box). Th e study found that people who live in more sprawling counties were likely to be heavier t han people who live in more compa ct counties. For every so-point inc rease in sprawl as measured by the sprawl index, t he BMI of resid ents would be expected to rise by .17 points. This translates into an increase in weight of just over one pound for the average person. Body Mass Index Body Mass Index measures weight in relation to height. It is a mathematical formula that divides a person's body weight in kilograms by the square of his or her height in meters. BMI is highly correlated with body fat, and can indicate that a person is overweight or obese. People with a Body Mass Index of 25 or higher are considered overweight, while those with a BMI of 30 or higher are considered obese. According to the National Institutes of Health, all adults who have a BMI of 25 or higher are considered at risk for premature death and disability as a consequence of being overweight. The average BMI of the more than 200,000 people in this study was 26.1. In general within this sample, BMI was higher among men. Both men and women tend to get heavier through middle age, and BMI tends to decline after age 64. African Americans and Hispanics tend to have a higher BMI than whites, while Asians are apt to have a lower BMI. Also, people who are college educated, or who eat three or more servings of fruits and vegetables in a day tend to have lower BM ls. All of these factors were controlled for in this study so that the association between weight and the degree of sprawl might be better isolated. To learn more about BMI and to calculate your own, visit http:// www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/d n pa/bm i/bm i-ad ult .htm. 14 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis Table 2. Sprawl, BMI a nd Expected Weight COUNTY EXPECTED WEIGi IT OF COUNTY SPR/\WL SCORE EXPECTED BMI /\VG PEHSON (5'7") New York , NY 352.07 25.23 161.1 San Francisco, CA 209.27 25.72 164.2 Suffolk, MA 179.37 25.83 164.9 Cook, IL 150.15 25.93 165.5 Delaware, PA 125.34 26.01 166.1 McHenry, IL IQ0.08 2fi.IO 166.6 Clay, FL 87.51 26.14 166.9 El Dorado, CA 85.67 26.15 167.0 Hanover, VA 74.97 26.19 167.2 Isa nti, MN 70.12 26.20 167.3 Walton, GA 69.61 26.20 167.3 Gea uga, OH 63.12 26.23 167.5 Table 2, above, places a person of average BMI at the center of the sprawl index -which ha ppens to be McHenry County out side of Chicago -in order to show how expected BM I differs for selected counties according to their sprawl ranking. Th e average BMI for all respondents in the study is 26.1, and the average height is s'7". The study itself was based on ind ividuals, not on averages, so t hese figures are provid ed to illustrate the difference in weight expected for persons of the same gender, age, and other cha racteristics living in different places. The s prawl scale shows us that Hanover County, near Richmond Virginia, is so points more sprawling than Delaware County, out side of Philadel phia. An average person People living in sprawling areas may be missing out on significant health benefits that are available simply by walking, bicycling, climbing stairs, and getting physical activity as part of everyday life. Oregon Department of Transportation, Pedestrian & Bicycle Program Smart Growth America • STPP • 15 living in Hanover County would be expected to have a BMI of 26.19; for an otherwise identical person who is 5'7" this translates into a weight of just over 167 pounds. His or her counterpart in less-sprawling FIGURE 6. Sprawl and Obesity Perce nt of Adult Population Who Are Obese Delaware County would be expected to have a BMI of 26.01, and would weigh 20% in at 166.1 pounds, or about one pound 15% less. Th is would be true even after controlling for gender, age, diet, and other factors. 10% 5% 25 Host Compact Counties 25 Host Sprawling Counties Looking at extremes, the difference in BMI between people living in the most and least sprawling counties was just under 1 BMI unit. That means a person living in the most sprawling county, Geauga County outside Cleveland Ohio, would be Source: BRFSS obesity rates, weighted by county (1998·2000). expected to weigh 6.3 pounds more than a person living in the most compact county, New York County (M anhatta n). However, Manh attan is an exceptional exampl e in that it is far more compact than any other county in the United States. A more typical compact co unty is Suffolk County in central Boston. A person living in Suffolk County wou ld be expected to weigh about 2.6 pounds less than a person living in Gea uga County, Ohio. A table with the expected BMI for each county is located in the Appendix. Sprawl and Obesity The researchers found a similar pattern for adult obesity. Regardless of gender, age, education levels, and smoking and eating habits, the odds of being obese were higher in more sprawling counties. For example, they were ten percent higher for a person living in Hanover County, with above-average sprawl, than in Delaware County, with below-average sprawl. While this study examined the health conditions at the individual level, the weighted averages for entire counties illustrate the relationship. In the 25 most-sprawling counties, 21 percent of the population was obese; in the 25 least sprawling, 19 percent of the population was obese. 16 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis Recommended Physical Activity: Who is getting it? The US Surgeon General now recommends getting 30 minutes of moderate activity at least five days a week to maintain a basic level of health.Almost two-thirds of Americans don't reach this goal. Men are more likely to be physically active than women, and non- Hispanic whites report more activity than people of other races. Younger people and those with higher educiltion levels also are more likely to be active. But people over 65 are more likely to sC1y they get the recommended Cl mount of exercise, mainly because they walk so much. Women walk for exercise more than men, with walking increasing up to 75 years of age. Will king is almost equally populC1r among all races, but people with higher education levels tend to walk more. Men are more likely to report having high blood pressure, diabetes, and coronary heart disease, and older people and those with lower education levels are also more likely to have these conditions. Evidence from Other Studies While this study used data at the county level t o look at relationships across the United States, another research project is underway in Atlanta that looks at health status at the neighborhood level.11 While most of the results have not yet been released, the study has found that the proportion of white men who are overweight declined from 68 to 50 percent as housing density in neighborh oods increased from two units per acre to eight units per acre, and the proportion of obese men declined from 23 to 13 percent in those more compact neighborhoods.'" Similar relationships hold for whit e women and African American men, but the sa mple size on African American women was too small to determine a re lationship. Sprawl is Linked to Physical Activity The most likely way that the design of our communities may influence weight is by encouraging or discouraging physical activity, particularly routine physical activity that is involved in daily life -what is referred to as 'active living.' For most people, this means the simple act of walking to the store, to work, or to other places that are a part of their daily routine. This study tested this idea by analyzing some of the physical activity data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. The survey asks whether people got any leisure-time physical activity within the past month, and if so, what kind of activity, how often they participated in it, and how long they spent on each occasion. It is importa nt to note that these questions focus on intentional exercise during leisure- time, as opposed to routine daily activity. The BRFSS has not measured routine physical activity such as walking to the store or to a transit stop, climbing stairs in a building, or bicycling to work. A recent federal survey found that more than 40 ! Smart Growth America • STPP • 17 percent of walking trips fall into this category.1• Later in the report, we'll explain why this study shows that such routine activity deserves much closer examination. Sprawl and Walking for Exercise The study suggests that the degree of sprawl does not influence whether people get any exercise in their leisure hours. Wh en asked about running, golf, gardening, walking, or any other leisure-time physical activity in the past month, people in sprawling and compact areas were equally likely to report that they had exercised in some way. While more people in compact areas reported reaching the recommended level of physical activity, this result was not statistically significant. However, the study did show t hat the degree of sprawl makes a difference in how much people engaged in the most common form of exercise -walking. People in more sprawling places reported that they spent less time walking in their leisure time than people living in compact locations. For every so-point increase in the county sprawl index, people were likely to walk fourteen minutes less for exercise in a month. This result is not a consequence of different demographics; the researchers controlled for gender, age, education, ethnicity, and other factors. This means that between the extremes of Manhattan and Geauga County Ohio, New Yorkers walked for exercise 79 minutes more each month. Looking at the weighted averages for the population as a whole, people in the 25 most sprawling counties walked an average of 19 1 minutes per month, compared to 254 minutes per month among those who live in the 25 most compact counties. Sprawl and Walking for Transportation Further analysis of t he relationships between walking, weight, and lo cation points t o the probability that routine physical activity is a significant factor in the lower BM ls of people who live in more compact communities. The researchers found that the lower levels of walking for exercise a mong those living in sprawling counties only accounted for a small fraction of the higher BM ls in these areas. Both body mass index and obesity levels were higher in the more sprawling counties, independent of how much people walked in their leisure time. The Question of Self-Selection People walk more in more walkable neighborhoods, but is this just a matter of self. selection? Do people who want to get that type of physical activity choose to live in places that provide it? Some studies indicate that walking and biking facilities actually encourage people to be more active. In a survey of US adults using a park or walking and jogging trail, almost JO percent reported an increase in activity since they began using these facilities.' A recent poll found that, if given a choice, 55 percent of Americans would rather walk than drive to destinations. And most people said inconvenience (61 %) and time pressures (47%) kept them from walking more.' 18 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis IS. ·5 ., "' E E 0 u ~ 0 H c: ., ~ ~ FIGURE 7. Sha re of Commute Trips by Trans it 7% 6% 5% 4% 3% 2% 1% 0% 10 Most Sprawling Metro Areas 10 Most Compact Metro Areas In this study, urban form has a stronger relationship to BMI than does leisure-time walking. Sprawl may be affecting other types of physical activity, such as wa lking for Source: Ewing R, Chen D. Measuring Sprawl and it's Impact. Smart Growth America. October 2002. transportation, that are, in turn, influencing weight. This study was unable to directly measure other types of walking that may be contributing to better fitness and lower we ight: t he walking trips that people take to go to the store, to visit friends, or to get to work. Many people may not consider such moderate activity, taken in the course of the day, as part of their exercise regim en. Yet medical research shows such modest exercise is important, and this may help explain why, regardless of how much they walked in their leisure time, those living in sprawling count ies were likely to weigh more. It suggests people living in sprawling areas may be missing out on significant health benefits t hat are available simply by walking, biking, climbi ng stairs, a nd getting other types of physical activity as part of everyday life. Other Evidence of the Link Bet ween Sprawl & Walking A closely related study found that the degree of sprawl influences how much people wa lk in everyday life. The first study using the metropolitan-level sprawl index found that in more co mpact places , people are far more likely to walk to work.2° The portion of commuters walking to work is one-t hird hig her in more compact metropo lita n a reas than in metro areas with a bove average s prawl. Public t ransit trips also typically involve some routine physical activity because most transit trips include a walk to or from a train or bus stop. The metropolitan sprawl study found that in the top 10 most sprawling metropolitan regions an average of just two percent of residents took a bus or train to work, while in t he ten most compact regions (excluding the extreme cases, New York and Jersey City), an average of seven percent took the bus or train!' Many transportation studies show that in places with a better pedestrian environment - with sidewalks, interconnected streets, and a mix of businesses and homes, people tend to drive less. For example, a study of two pairs of neighborhoods in the San Fra ncisco Bay Area found that people walked to shopping areas more freq uently in older neighborhoods with nearby stores and a well-connected grid street network.22 Another 1 Smart Growth America • STPP • 19 THE EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE . : . . ;; .... r' .• . , .: 't The ;tudy discussed.int.his report found that in more compact.counties in the United States, people tend to.walk more and weigh less. Ho.~ever, in the us,.most counties are quite spi'eaa o ut, and truly.compact' cour:rties !lr.e very _r·< · f_ew._C\-~imple cotnp~rison with plap~s that tend to. be far mor¢".c::ompatt -'. · . ; ,. Eur.O,~·eari,dties :: shoi,vs striking ~·iffeterices ln physical act~vjt.)' and obesJty ,., .. • ~ '. --,r_ ~.; ' ... • • J. . • •• • • . , . ' =:>•~ .· level ; even though the data.cannot.·confrol for t~e· many other variables thaf .<. ~· . : influ~~ce activity (!nd heci.lth o~ t~e·tw~ contirients/ • .. _.i ·. · · · . • :--:: ' . _, ., . : ' :": ~-': ~ -~' : '.. \ , ~1. . ..~ . Obviously, many fact~rs besi.des"phys_ical activity lnfluence_.y.i·~ight and e;".· health~ Research show's that Am~ricans ~onsu.ftie eight per~enf more.food !" ~ach di!Y thah do Europ.eans.'Ot~er factors may·i~clude differe~'ces fr·(·~ .:~ dt~tary c~stoms, he~lth, car;El sy~Je"'!1s,"_genetic p[ed)spositio,~~; and the. t_, ability to:· afford healtl~"~are and a nutritious diet. Europea~s and · y Ameri9ans also smok~, drink, and. consume caffeine and dr~gs a( different rat~s. But the raw figure!j do sugg,est that th~ Europeans rnay .have . . "'· ~ . . • Ii .r. ; ,j . " ' : )o ' ' i;! .. soniething to teach us abolifcontrolltng weight and improving health . ,, ·. t through routine physical activity; particularly by walking and .biking to get wh.ere we are going: 20 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis study that focused specifically on physical activity found that urban and suburban residents who lived in older neighborhoods (measured by whether their homes were built before 1946) were more likely t o walk long distances frequently than people livi ng in newer homes.21 A recent poll asking people about their walking habits found that just 21 percent of self-described suburban residents walked to a destination in the previous week, while 45 percent of city residents had taken a walk to get somewhere."' A recent review that evaluated results from studies of neighborhoods in four metropolitan areas estimat ed that communities designed fo r walking encourage an extra 15 to 30 minutes of walking per week. For a I SO-pound person, that extra exercise could mean losing -or keeping off -between one to two pounds each year.25 Another study also confirmed the importance of this type of activity: it found that walking or bicycli ng to work was associated with lower weight and less weight gain over t ime among middle-aged men, whet her or not t hey engaged in more vigorous exercise.2• Sprawl and Chronic Di sease Extensive medical research shows that physical inactivity contributes to a variety of chronic health conditions in addition to obesity. Since this study found that a county's developm ent pattern is associated with higher weights and lower levels of physical activity, could urban form also be associated with higher levels of disease? This study used BRFSS data to explore that question , looking at the prevalence of hypertension, diabetes, and coronary heart disease. People who live in more sprawling counties were more likely to suffer from hypertension than people in more compact counties, even after controlling for age, education, gender, and other demographic factors. Hypertension, comm only known as high blood pressure, increases the risk of heart attack and stroke. Both obesity and physical inactivity are risk factors for hypertension. The odds of a resident having high blood pressure are about 6 percent higher in a county that is less sprawling tha n average than in a county more sprawling than average (25 units above and below the mean sprawl ind ex, respectively). Comparing the most and least compact places, the odds of having high blood pressure were 29 percent lower in Manhattan than in Geauga County, Ohio. Wh ile this study examined the health cond itions at the individual level, the weighted averages for entire counties illustrate the differences fo und: the 25 most-sprawling counties had average hypertension rates of 25 per 100 while the 25 least sprawling had hypertension rates of 23 per 100. Just as the tendency toward obesity may be exacerbated by a sedentary lifestyle in sprawling places, so may the t endency towa rd high blood pressure. The relationship Smart Growth America• STPP • 21 between hypertension and sprawl is not as strong as the association between obesity and sprawl, but the existence of any relationship between urban form and a disease associated with physical inactivity is still noteworthy when so many other factors impinge on health. The researchers found weak associations between diabetes and urban form, and between coronary heart disease and urban form, but these associations did not reach the level of statistical significance. Factors outside the scope of this study may obscure any relationship between admittedly complex diseases and the degree of sprawl. Why Sprawl May be Linked to Chronic Disease Th e potential relationship between community design and chronic disease is most likely through sprawl's impact on physical activity, a proven factor in many chronic diseases. A 1996 Surgeon General's report cited hundreds of studies showing the link between physical activity and health.21 Inactivity contributes to being overweight or obese, and is also connected to a host of health problems. Diseases associated with being overweight and physically inactive reportedly account for over 200,000 premature deaths each year, second only to tobacco-related deaths.2•·29 Sprawl and Health at the Metropolitan Level In addition to the a nalysis using the county sprawl index, the researchers related health data to the metropolitan level sprawl index to see if any relationships held at the much larger regional level. This analysis found only one statistically significant association at the metropolitan level -people walk less for exercise in more sprawling metropolitan areas. The fact that sprawl measured at the county level is significant in many cases, and sprawl measured at the metropolitan level is not, suggests that the built environment "close to home" is most relevant to public health. The association may be even stronger at the neighborhood level. Th is project has been on the macro scale; other studies of sprawl and health at a finer scale are showing strong associations between the built environment, physical activity, and health. IV. The Need for Further Research T he goal of t his study was to explore the possibility that the way we've bu ilt our commun ities could have a direct impact on health. As a broad national study, it does not g ive a definitive answer in several areas, but points the way toward research that is needed to show whether these relationships hold true. Does spraw ling development actually cause obesity, disease, or lo wer rotes of walking? Since a cross-sectional study of this sort cannot control for all the possible differences between people living in different places, it is premature to say that sprawl ca uses obesity, high blood pressure, or other health conditions. These results show that sprawl is associated with these conditions, but studies using control groups or that look at changes in individuals' weight and health over time are needed to explore causality. What is the impact of phys ica l activity that falls outside the definition of /eisure- time exercise? As mentioned above, the BRFSS only measures walking as a leisure-time activity. Other types of physica l activity include walking for transportation; performing physical labor on the job; or doing work around the house, such as cleaning or gardening. Future studies should look for greater precision in characterizing physical activity. Th e newest version of the BRFSS asks questions about these many types of physical activity. Similarly, researchers need better measures of walking. In looking at minutes walked, this study only included those who listed walking as one of their top two forms of exercise, missing t hose who walk for exercise less frequently_ Are there any threshold effects in changing physica l activity rotes? Do es a change from one level of compactness to another yield major differences in activity levels or health? It may well be that the relationship between sprawl and physical activity or health is not linear: that communities must reach certain thresholds of compactness in order to make any significant difference in physical activity. For example, moving from a neighborhood with one or two houses per acre to one with three or four houses per acre may not be enough to trigger any changes in behavior. What does research at the neighborhood level tell us? This study looks at counties and even metropolitan regions, large areas compared to the living and working environments of most people_ If the effect of the built environment is strongest on a smaller scale, we need studies done at that level. The Active Living Research program at San Diego State University is sponsoring such studies, and the "SMARTRAQ " research project at Georgia Tech is starting to show results for neighborhoods in Atlanta. How do other fa ctors in the environment influence phys ical activity, weight, and disease? Because they are not directly measured in the sprawl index, this study does not account for many things that may influence physical activity, such as the availability of Smart Growth America • STPP • 23 parks, sidewalks, or multi-use trails, or even climate, topography, and crime. Future research is needed to fill this void. Is there any relations hip between location and what or how much people eat? This study only partially accounted for food intake -the other half of the weight equation. The only diet -related variable available was the number of fruit and vegetable servings per day. It may be that people in compact and sprawling places eat differently. Future research may, for example, relate the density of fast food resta urants and availability of food choices to diet and obesity. Did the sampling des ign of the BRFSS have any influence over the results? The complex nature of the BRFSS study reinforces the need to be cautious in interpreting these early findings. The CDC is in the process of developing methods to adjust state- based weights so the BRFSS can be used with more confidence at the local level. The strong and growing interest in this field is an encouraging sign that research to answer these questions is on the way. Two notable efforts are coming from the CDC and The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF). Th e CDC has established an Active Communities Research Group, which is investigating some of these connections. RWJF has devot ed $70 mill ion to academic research and on-the-ground strategies to encourage physical activity. For example, Active Living Research has supported a series of carefully targeted research gra nts to expand understa nding of what makes a community activity· friendly. The RWJF also has established Active Living By Design, a program that will award grants to 25 co mmunities to plan a nd modify the built environment to support and promote increased physical activity. Information about these programs and more ca n be found through t he Active Living Network, at www.activeliving.org. Th e stron9 and 9rowin9 interest in this fi eld is an encoura9 in 9 si9n that more research to answer these questions is on the way. PHOTOS: www.pedbikeimages.org/Oan Burden V. Considering health when we plan our communities T hi s st udy s hows that t he way our communities are built -the urba n fo rm -may be sig ni fica ntly associated with some forms of phys ical activity a nd wit h some health o utcomes. After controlling for demographic and behavioral characteristics, these results show that residents of sprawling places are likely to walk less, weigh more, and are more likely to have ,high blood pressure than residents of compact counties. The way that communities are built appears to have an impact on health. Public health research shows that even a small shift in the health of the overall population can have important public health implications.'0 ln addition, changes to the built environment can have an effect that lasts far beyond individual resolve to diet or exercise. Increasing Physical Activity: Benefits for individuals and the community The potential for improving health through physical activity is enormous. A major National In stitutes of Health study of more than 3,200 patients at high risk for type-2 diabetes found that by losing weight and increasing exercise (primarily through walking), participants reduced their risk of getting diabetes by 58 percent. Among older people, the risk was reduced by 71 percent. Th e study was halted early because the findings were so dramatic and conclusive that researchers felt they had to be shared." Perhaps most fundamentally, physically fit people simply live longer. A landmark study published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2001 found that physical fitness is a better predictor of the risk of death than smoking, hypertension, heart disease, and other risk factors. Physical activity improved survival for people with every disease studied. "No matter how we twisted it, exercise came out on top," said lead author Jonathan Myers of Stanford University." Beyond the obvious benefits to individuals, finding ways to help more people be more active could have benefits for the entire health care system. A new analysis found that treatment of conditions tied to being overweight or obese costs an estimated $78 billion annually." Health-care costs associated with obesity are estimated to be higher than those associated with either smoking or drinking,34 and another study found that helping people lose weight and become more active could save more than $76 billion in health care costs an nually.35 These savings are desperately needed: health care costs are accelerating rapidly,'6 with costs related to caring for people who are overweight or obese accounting for an estimated 37 pe rcent of the increase.37 Up to 75 percent of health care costs are associated with chronic diseases, many of which are tied to obesity and physical inactivity. Smart Growth America • STPP • 25 Meanwhile, governments and private-sector developers are spending billions to build the infrastructure that shapes our communities -the roads, homes, offices, and buildings where people spend their daily lives. For example, the federal government spent about $35 billion in 2001 on transportation, and the transportation funding legislation is one of the largest spending bills passed by Congress. State and local governments spend another $124 billion on transportation infrastructure. Using just a small fraction of such investments to create more walkable and bikeable communities is an efficient way to increase physical activity and improve health. Seeking Solutions Th e good news is that the potential for getting exercise as part of daily life is already enormous. More than a quarter of all trips in urbanized areas are a mile or less, and fully half of all trips are under three miles, an easy bicycling distance.'8 Yet most of those trips are now made by automobile. Converting more trips to biking and walking is possible, as evidenced by the experience in Europe (see special section, page 19). Recent research identifies six ways that the Netherlands and Germany have achieved their high rates of biking and walking: heavy investment in better walking and biking facilities; traffic calming of residential neighborhoods; urban design sensitive to the needs of non-motorists; restrictions on automobile us e in cities, rigorous traffic education and strict enforcement of strong traffic laws protecting pedestrians and cyclists. How can communities in the United States re-shape themselves to promote physical activity? Th e CDC is developing a Guide for Community Preventive Services, which is gathering evidence from case studies and other research to highlight some of the most effective. Smart Growth America's website (www.smartgrowthamerica.org) serves as portal to many groups and activities. A few primary strat egies are listed below. Narrowin g st ree ts at inters ec tions, creating rais ed crosswalks, and installing traffic circles makes streets s afer and more pleasant for pedestrians. Oregon Department of Transportation, Pedestrian & Bicycle Program 26 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis Invest in Bicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure In many states, sidewalks and bicycle lanes or wide shoulders are not routinely included when a road is built or improved.39 But many communities are creating networks of sidewalks and bike lanes that help people on foot and bicycle get where they are going safely. To learn about creating bike-and pedestrian-friendly streets, see Increasing Physical Activity through Community Design by the National Center for Bicycling and Walking (www.bikewalk.org), or visit the Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center at www.walkinginfo.org. Calm Traffic Traffic engineers are using a variety of new techniques to slow traffic and give pedestrians and cyclists priority on neighborhood streets. Narrowing streets at intersections, creat ing raised crosswalks, and installing traffic circles makes streets safer and more pleasant for pedestrians. In Seattle, for example, engineers installed hundreds of traffic circles on neighborhood streets, decreasing traffic crashes by roughly 77 percent. Learn about traffic calming approaches by visiting the Institute of Traffic Engineers at www.ite.org. Create Safe Routes to School The trip to school can be one of the first places to help kids get active, every day. Childhood obesity and inactivity have reached epidemic proportions, and transportation studies show that young children are spending more time in cars than ever before. Communities across the country a re trying to change that through Safe Routes to School programs that create a safe walking and biking envi ronment for the trip to school, and encourage children and their parents to get in the habit of walking. In California, one-third of federal traffic safety funds are devoted to creating Safe Routes to School. A bill has been introduced in Congress to create a nationwide program; for information visit http://www.americabikes.org/ saferoutes.asp. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has created a toolkit for communities interested in creating Safe Routes to School programs. For more information, http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/i nj u ry/ped b imot/ped/ saferouteshtml/overview.html. Build Transit-Oriented Development Many communities around the country are concentrating a mix of housing and businesses around train or bus stations. This makes it more convenient for people to walk to and from transit, and to pick up a quart of milk or drop off dry cleaning along the way. For example, Dallas, Texas is using its new light-rail line as a launching point for creating new, walkable neighborhoods. Overall community design is also importa nt, especially in develop ing places where walking and bicycling is convenient. See the book Solving Sprawl by Kaid Benfield (Natural Resources Defense Council, 2001) for a wealth of examples of these types of projects. Also, Reconnecting America's Center for Transit-Oriented Development has conducted innovative research and developed numerous tools to help commu nities pursue such development solutions. See www.reconnectingamerica.org for more details. Smart Growth Am erica • STPP • 2 7 PHOTOS: www.pedbik.eimages.org/Dan Burden Retrofit Sprawling Commun ities Millions of Am ericans live in places where it is difficult to walk anywhere. A recent poll found t hat 44 percent of those surveyed said it was d ifficult for t hem to wa lk to any dest ination from t heir home.4° Communities can create pedestrian cut-th roughs that allow people who live on cul-de-sacs to reach shops, parks and offices on foot. Foundering shopping malls, isolated from neighborhoods by expansive parking lot s, are being reborn as developers cut new st reets t hrough the once-massive buildings, remodeled to hold apa rtments and businesses as well as shops. The Congress for the New Urbanism's web site gives many good examples of these types of projects (www.cnu.org). Revitalize Walkable Neighborhoods Many cities a nd towns have downtowns a nd main streets with the basic attributes of a walkable a nd bikeable comm unity, but they lack economic investme nt. These st ruggling communities may have doze ns, if not hundreds, of vacant buildings; a lack of good ret ail outlets; and high crime rates. Local governments are concentrating on revitalizin g these neighborhoods t hrough comm ercia l invest ment, bringing vacant property back to productiv e use, and creating new housing for a mix of income levels. Smart Growth America a nd several partners have formed a national Vacant Properties Campaign to address some of t hese issues. See www.vacantproperties.org. Historic preservation has also proven to be an effective strategy for rev italizing Main Streets, traditional downtowns and historic corridors. The National Trust for Historic Preservation offers ma ny tools to loca l practitioners through their network and web s ite at www.nthp.org. Educate and Encourage While changing community desig n is c ritical, ma king s ure that people understa nd the benef its of physical activity and seek it out is also essentia l. Many prog rams combine environmental changes with outreach to info rm and mot ivate people. For example, many communities undertaking Safe Routes t o School programs celebrat e 'Walk a Child to School Day' in October. In addition, the CDC has launched a nat io nal youth media campaign aim ed at he lping young t eena gers make healthy choices that includ e physical activity (http://www.cdc.gov/youthca m pa ign/ind ex. htm). 28 • Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis Conclusion The way we build our communities appears to affect how much people walk, how much they weigh, and their likelihood of having high blood pressure. These findings are in line with a growing body of research which shows that community design influences how people travel and how physically active they are in t he course of the day. While more research is needed, urban planners, public health officials, and citizens are already looking to change communities to make it easier t o get out on a bicycle or on foot. Ultimately, such long-term cha nges may help more Americans lead healthier and happier lives. Endnotes ' Mokdad AH, Serdula MK, Dietz WH, Bowman BA, Marks JS, Kaplan JP. The spread of the obesity epidemic in the United States, 1991-1998. JAMA.1999;282:1Sl9-IS22. ' Flegal K, Carroll M, Ogden C, Johnson C. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2000. JAMA. 2002;288: 1723-1727. ' National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevalence of overweight among children and adolescents: United States, 1999-2000. Avai lable at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/ hestat s/overwght99.htm. Accessed on July IS, 2003. • Must A, Spada no J, Coakley EH, Field AE, Colditz G, Dietz WH. The Disease Burden Associated with Overweight and Obesity. JAMA. 1999;282:1S23-IS29. ' Orr A. CDC: Obesity fastest-growth health threat. Reuters. Junes, 2003. Available at: http://www.ucsfhealth.org/ chi Id ren s/he a lth_I i bra ry/re uters/20 o 3/0 61200 3060 seli n 026 .ht m I. ' Pratt M, Macera CA, Blanton(_ Levels of physical activity and inactivity in children and adults in the United States: Current evidence and research issues. Med & Science in Sports & Exercise. 1999;31(11 Suppl}: Ss26-SS33. (Physical Activity Levels for U.S. Overall. Available at: http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/d n pa/piRec.asp?piState=us&PiStateSubm it=Get+Stats. Accessed October 31, 2002). ' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Physical Activity Trends-United States, 1990-1998. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. March 9, 2001;S0(9):166-169. ' Surface Transportation Policy Project . American attitudes toward walking and creating better walking communities. April 2003. Available at: http://www.transact.org/report.asp?id=2os. Accessed July IS, 2003. ' Ewing R, Cervera R. Travel and the built environment. Transportation Research Record 1780. 2001:87-114. '0 Sallis JF, Owen N. Physical Activity and Behovioral Medicine. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 1999. Footnotes 13-18 in paper. " Humpel N, Owen N, Leslie E. Environmental fact ors associated with adults' participation in physical activity. Am J Prev Med. 2002;22:188-199. "King AC, Jeffery RW, Fridinger F, Dusenbury L, Provence S, Hedlund SA, Spangler K. Environmental and policy approaches to cardiovascular disease prevention through physical activity: Is sues and opportunities. Health Ed Q11arterly.199S; 22(4): 499-Sll. " Schmid TL, Pratt M, Howze E. Policy as intervention: Environmental and policy approaches to the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Am J Pub Health. 199S; 8S(9): 1201-1211. "Sallis JF, Owen N. Ecological models. In: Glanz K, Lewis FM, Rimer BK, eds. Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice. Second edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997:403-424. "Sallis JF, Bauman A, Pratt M. Environmental and policy interventions to promote physical activity. Am J Prev Med. 1998; I S(4): 379-397. " Killingsworth RE, Lamming J_ Development and public health-could our development patterns be affecting our personal health. Urban Land. July 2001:12-11. " Strategies for Metropolitan Atlanta's Regional Transportation and Air Quality (SMARTRAQ). Available at: http:// www.smartraq.net. "Frank L, Engelke P, Schmid T. Health and Community Design. Washington, DC: Island Press; 2003:187. "National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Bureau of Transportation Statistics. National Survey of Pedestrian and Bicyclist Attitudes and Behaviors. May 2003. Available at: http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/survey2002.htm. '°Ewi ng R, Pendall R, Chen, 0. Measuring sprawl and its impact. Smart Growth America. October 2002. Available at: http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org. " Ewing, Pend all and Chen, 19. "Handy, SL. Understanding the link between urban fo rm and nonwork travel behavior. J. Planning Ed and Res 1996; 1s: 183-198. • , Smart Growth America • STPP • 29 "Berrigan D, Troiano RP. The association between urban form and physical activity in U.S. adults. Am J Prev Med. 2002;23(2S):74-79. "Surface Transportation Policy Project. American attitudes toward walking and creating better walking communities. Additional data analysis by Belden, Russonello and Stewart. "Saelens B, Sallis J, Frank L. Environmental correlates of walking and cycling: Findings from t he transportation, urban design, and planning literatures. Annals of Behavioral Medicine; Mar/Apr. 2003. "Wagner, A, Simon C, Ducimetiere P, et al. Leisure-time physical activity and regular walking or cycling to work are associated with adiposity and 5 y weight gain in middle-aged men: The PRIME study. lntematianal Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders. 2001, 25:940-948. "U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 1996. "McGinnis JM, Foege WH. Actual causes of death in the United States. JAMA. 1993;270:2207·2212. "Allison DB et al. Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States. JAMA.1999;282:1530-1538. "'Rose G. Sick individuals and sick populations. Int J of Epidemio 1985; 14(1):32-38. '' National Institutes of Health. Diet and exercise dramatically delay type 2 diabetes. Available at: http://www.nih.gov/ news/pr/aug2001/niddk-08.htm; and Squires S. Exercise, diet cut diabetes risk by 58%. Washington Post. August 9, 2001. "Reid B. High risk inactivity. Was hington Post. March 26, 2002:F1. '-'Finkelstein EA, Fiebelkorn IC, Wang G. National medical spending attributable to overweight and obesity. Health Affairs web exclusive. May 14, 2003. Available at: http://www.healthaffairs.org/WebExclusives/ Finkelstein_Web_Exc\_051403.htm. Accessed July 15, 2003. "Sturm R. The effects of obesity, smoking, and drinking on medical problems and costs. Health Affairs Morch/April 2002;21 (2):245·253. "Pratt M, Macera CA, Wang G. Higher direct medical costs associated with physical inactivity. The Physician and Sportsmedicine. 2000; 28:63-70. ,. Matthews T. Health care's perfect storm. State Government News. February 1, 2003 "Finkelstein, Fiebelkorn, Wang, National medical spending. "Clarke A. National Household Transportation Survey, original analysis. Data available at: http://nhts.ornl.gov/2001/ index.shtml. "Wilkinson B, Chauncey B. Are we there yet? Assessing the performance of state departments of t ransportation on accommodating bicycles and pedestrians. National Center for Bicycling & Walking. February, 2003. Available at: http:/ /www.bikewalk.org/assets/pdf/AWTY031403.pd f. Accessed July 15, 2003. '0 Surface Transportation Policy Projec t. American Attitudes Toward Walking. Endnotes from Boxes ' Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluati on, US Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity Fundamental to Preventing Disease. June 20, 2002. Available at http://aspe.hhs.gov/health/reports/ phys ica \activity/. ' Brownson R et al. Environmental and policy determinants of physical activity in the United States. American Journal of Public Health. 2001;91(12): 1995-2003. ' Surface Transportation Policy Project. American Attitudes Toward Walking. ' Pucher J. Comparison of public health indicators in Europe, Canada, and the United States as a function of transport and land use characteristics: An exploratory analysis." New Brunswick, NY Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Nov. 30, 2001. Unpublished working paper commissioned to supplement this study. ' Pucher J, Dijkstra L. Promoting safe walking and cycling to improve public health: Lessons from the Netherlands and Germany. American Journal of Public Health. July 2003;93(7). ' Pucher J, Dijkstra L. Promoting Safe Walking and Cycling. Appendix ALABAMA Baldwin Memphis, TN·AR·MS Fal!_l~~F~;~~~?~:llitl\~~~tf;:~~z~~.~~·a,b~g~~-RB~,~~~~~~f~:'..~·-· . : ,. Lonoke Little Rock·North Little Ro ck, AR 'Lttfji:R~~~~~f-t~}i~t~-t~~~~e.·; ·:~.~~\·-.~ Little Rock-North Little Rock, AR : .~Aia·PabR~~J~~~~.t~~~~EY.~'l~ti~_f,. ·~~~~~il ~-~~-Jii~-~ Boulder Denver·Boulder·Greeley, CO 83.16 108.45 98.85 8~;:~6. 83.76 84.98 111.51 101.73 . 94.07 , 8'3::'.\5 81.22 1§~.~4 · 82.00 136.6~·' :'-· 115.77 8~.67 ' 98.02 ·".95.07" .. "' ""-" 141.74 26.16 "i6:97·, ~ 26.15 ,·<.,. 26.11 26'<p< 25.96 ,,.,.,,~ ... ·,··'""'• '"·~ 11 ir~·o ~)'t:}W.E~!~-~:;~·?;~~ . ..; 107.01 26.0 8 13,1'74, 95.58 1.6f~34.~:;-: -~~;":·t '_ 116.35 100.,49 11 9.73 20~.27 110.94 .:. ·'i::~21.ii_~:~ ~~: ·'V, :·132.~9 115.84 i21,28 111.63 -_11~"4'1 - 10 1.84 . ·109.91 112.72 J0°5~§0 125.56 .1;14."i6 108.15 26.06 ··~2~99.-:' 26.05 f2~qr ;. 26.06 '~-~16;Q~;~~f~:- 26.06 26.08. 26.0 1 26.07 167.01 166.30 ·-" 166.7.S 165.73 ·0.35 ·0.18 2.02% ·1.86% ·4.85% ·1.87% ·0.96% 3.63% ·3.29% ·8.47% ·3.30% ·1.71% The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.1. This chart shows the difference in BMI that is expected due to sprawling development patterns, holding all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a 5°7° person, the average height for the men and women sampled in the study. - w 0 CONNECTICUT tlouglas El Paso Jefferson Fairfield Hartford Middlesex Broward Clay Dade Duval Herna~do Hillsborough Nassau 0.-ange Osc.eola Palm Beach Pasco Pinellas Polk Seminole 'St:·Johns " V~lusia Catoosa Cherokee llllll!litiii!:..;,.,"""...,°""'w;.:;;.:;:'-'.u Clayton Cobb Columbia Coweta Dade De Kalb "Ei'eilver, co ·'c~l~r~do Spring~. co Denver;co New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ-CT-PA Hartford, CT Hartford, CT Ne*w York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ-CT-PA H;rtfo7ci, C-T e·hiladelphia-Wilm~ng:ton-Atlantic City, PA-NJ-DE-MD Melbourne-Titusville-Palm Bay, FL Fort Lauderd~le, FL• Jacksonville, FL ~iami, Fl · Jacksonville, FL 'i:a"mpalSt.Petersburg-Clearwater, FL Tampa~St Petersburg-Clearwater, FL Jacwk-sonville, FL Orlando, FL Qrlando, l''L West Palm Beach-Boca Raton, FL 'Tampa-St Petersburg-Clearwater, FL T~~pa-St Petersburg-Clearwater, FL '_Lakela_nd-Wfnter. Raven, FL Orlando, FL Jackso'hv.illi,FL, , 0a'yto~~ Be~ch, FL Chatt_anooga;TN-GA Atlanta, GA ,~1-a,GA Atlanta, GA ·'-*A~"g_,us)!-~k~~' GA·SC Atlanta, GA ctrit_!~'noigi, TN-GA Atlanta, GA 94.83 ?6.12 105.29 26.08 112.59 26.06 107.34 26.07 102.75 26.09 90.28 26.13 107.10 26 .. 08 81.77 26.16 114.83 26.05' 104.77 26.08 127.01 26.01- 87.51 26.14 136.17 25.98. 114.74 26.05 94.97 26.12 114.31 26.05 80.31 26.]7, 115.05 26.05 105.55 '. 26.08 110.38 26.06 110.22 26.06 126.64 26.01 105 .. 24 26.08 11 2.13 26.06 99.33 26.1.0 ' 104.77 26.08 77.67 26:18 •. 78.71 26.17 85 .. 61 26.15 85.22 26.15 99.61 26.10_ 101.01 26.10 87.30 26:14 80.87 26.17 77.61 26.18" 103.94 26.09 8.0.29 '-' -.· .. ;_;26;11,~, 75.74 26.18 72.d4,, .-"'; -2&.20 .;c. -j -~ ,: 105.46 26.08 93.76 =26'.12, 166.76 166.53 166:37 166.48 166.58 166.86 166.49 167.04 166.32 166.54 166.05 166.92 165.85 166.32 166.75 166.33 167.07 166.31 166.52 166.41 166.:+2 166.06 166.53 166.38 166.66 166.54 167.13 167.11 166.96 166.97 ~-. 16.6.65 166.62 166.92 167.06 167.13 166.56 ·'· ,. 167.07 -167.17 _•.,..'F°" ' 167.26 166.52 --~-166.78 ' ·0.63% ·1.49% ·0.87% ·0.33% 1.16% -0~_!>.,'__ 2.19% -0.57% ·3.16% 1.50% -4".21;%·· ·1.74% . 0.60% ·1.69% 2.37% ·l.78% -:0 :6,6%. ·1.23% ·1.21% ·3.12% ·0.62% ·1.43% 2.57% l.f'.3% 1.77% --J·O~ ·0 .12% 1.52,% - 2.30% ·0.47% 1.10% -~ ~ . ·1.12% ·2.63% ·1.54% ·0.58% 2.08% ·1.01% ·5.57% 2.68% '7._3$% ' ·3.08% 1.07% ·2.99% 4.26% ·3.14% ·1.17% ·2.18% ·5.49% -1.10% ·2.54% 4.62% 3.18% ·0.21% 4.14% ·0.83% The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.1. This chart shows the difference in BMI that is expected due to sprawling development patterns, hold ing all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a s11" person, the average height for the men and women sampled in the study. U1 3 "" ..... ... C"I ..... 0 ~ ... ::r » 3 <I> ..... ;:;· "" w - Spalding Kend<ilf Lake M'aais~n McHenry ·Monroe St. Clair Will IN DIANA Allen ~~*· •. BoOne Clark De Kalb Dearborn Floyd Hamilton Harrison T' •.. Atlan~'.'rGf'. Augusta-Aiken, GA·SC -~a~ta,~A- _S~_f"oTITs, MO:ll - Chicago, IL _'<i ,,.-;-....... •• · St Guls, MQ_-IL St Louis, MO-IL Fort Wayne, IN . £~l~~PJff~. {r-1 Louisville, KY-IN Fort Wayne, IN . Ci~cinnati, OH-KY-IN .L~~is':ille~~.X-JNl . Indianapolis, IN """"...!rldia~~ol~:_l_N . Louisville, KY-IN ln#J;~aPaji;,'"1N Indianapolis, IN Chicago-Gary-l<ienosha, IL-IN-WI Indianapolis, IN ~~~~-:ft~!~4J~Rm~J~~~~~;~~1~-;~. . Chicago-Gary-Kenosha, IL-IN-WI .. '.;:'- E~J!~IJ1l!!~;:::~2i~~!!~~~~~~-~11.,"3i'~~ln 1a~iP~Sl~s, ·-~~~:-~-i:~F]f~i .~~t-;f:':-~:~7-:~\~~ + > Fort Wayne, IN IOWA 74.13 • 18:i:fo 79.44 82.10 102.47 82,82 85.19 81.26 150,i:? 114.64 87.74 108.53 90.37 108.92 102.62 100.08 5'5.fi4 104.41 98.81 97.44 78.10: 102.63 80.34 84.42 9,7.71 • 93.90 82.44 . 74.37 85.56 96.44 110.99 113.13 88.06 94.09 ''~8.,1 8, 72.38 26.19 1~::~ ~; ?~~~ ·-·~ 26.17 ) 26.i6 26.09 c ,._2~.1.6 26.15 261[6 -~' 167.21 167.09 167.03 166.59 161.02 166.97 ~ 1.67.05 '-~-~·!·~, ;~~i.i~~;iJrtt~r--i~~-!:t~ _ 26.05 166.32 26.07 26_.1'3 26.07 166.45 166.8~ 166.45 ~·-· _:---~~;i_~i>9~ -~~ 26.10 166.64 kl? r 166.96 26.08 166.54 ~ :r . ..::.,i6:ib ...,, 26.11 ·:~.5f:·~3;~~1~? ~-,~S~;:':i~:. ~~~-~= 26.09 26.i7 . 167.07 26.15 166.98 166.69 26.12 166.78 • ~~:i~' . ' 26.19 :---.,..._,..-.... 26.15 26.11 26.0°6 26.05 ·26!'14. 26.12 167~0"3 167.20 _166.9'6 166.72 166.40 166.35 167.04 166.5'2'" 3.13% 2.48% 2.15% ·0.29% -207%~ -=·~ 1.78% ·1.01% 1.15% • ·1.06% 0.1:4%.'.. 0.31% -, ~.~~~ ·0.31% ~ 2.37% 1.87% 0.27% 0.73% 3.10% 1.73% 0.42% ·1.30% ·1.55% 5.64% 4.46% 3.87% ·0.52% 3.19% 4,05·% 6.66% ·1.79% ·1.87% ·0.93% 0.55% ~ ·0.56% 4.26% 3.36% 1.30% 5.58% The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.1. This chart shows the difference in BMI that is expected due to sprawling development patterns, holding all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a 51711 person, the average height for the men and women sampled in the study. w N :s::: ,,, "' "' c: ..., State County Metro Area Sprawl Expected Expected Percent PNccnt Index BMI Weight difference in diffrrt•nc(' Score odds of in odds hypertension of obesity from Average fron1 Aver,1g" Pottawattamie Omaha, NE-IA 93.73 26.12 166.78 0 .75% J.34% Warren Des Mo in.es, IA 79.86 26.17 167~6a·· Z.<13% 4.36ll: KANSAS Butler Wichita, KS 79.81 26.17 167.09 2.43% 4.37% Harvey Wichita, KS 73.89 26.19. 167.22 3.16% 5.69% Johnson Kansas City, MO-KS 103.50 26.09 166.57 ·0.42% ·0.74% Leavenwort!i Kansas City, MO-~S 94.46 26.12: 166.76 0.66% • l.18lk_ Miami Kansas City, MO-KS 71.0 3 26.20 167.28 3.51% 6.33% Sedgwick " •. Wichita, KS. 106.18 2.6.08 166.51 ·0.73% ·1.30% Wyandotte Kansas Cit y, MO-KS 111.25 26.06 166.39 ·l.33% ·2.36% KENTUCKY Boone Cincinnati,_OH-K'i'.-IN 92.11 26.13 166.8'2 0.94% 1.69% Bullitt Louisville, KY-IN 86.26 26.15 166.94 J.65% 2.96% Campbell'· Ci ncinnati, "OH;KY-I N 109.57 26.0 7 166.43 ·1.13% ·2.0_1% J efferson Louisville, KY-IN 110.08 26.07 166.42 ·1.19% ·2.11% Kenton Ci ncinnati, OH_;KY-IN 108.82 26.0 7 166.45 ·1.04% ·l.jl5% Oldham Louisville, KY-IN 84.27 26.15 166.99 1.89% 3.39% Shelby 87.61 26.14 166.91 1.48% 2.66% LOU ISIANA Ascension Baton Rouge, LA 8 7.25 26.14 166.92 J.53% 2.74% E~t Baton Rouge Baton Rouge! LA 105.67 26.08 166.52 ·0.67% ·1~20% Jefferson New Orleans, LA 124.23 26.02 166.11 ·2.84% ·5.01% .Livingston Baton Ro'uge, LA 82.76 26.16 167.02 2.07% 3.'12% Orleans New Orleans, LA 149.47 25.93 165.56 ·5.72% ·9.96% St. Bernard New Orleans, LA 113.59 26.05 166.34 ·1.60 % ·2.84% St. Charles New Orleans, LA 91.16 26.13 16 6.84 1.06% 1.89% St..~ohn t he Baptist New Orleans, LA 98.13 26.11 166.68 0 .22% o.~0%~ · St.Tammany New Orleans, LA 96.48 26.11 166.72 0 .42% 0.75% West Bato;Rouge Baton Rouge, LA 91.68 26.13 166.82 1.00% 1 .. 78% MARYLAND Anne Arundel Baltimore, MD 107.75 26.07 166.47 ·0 .92% ·J.63% Baltimore Ba_lti_m_ore, MD 107.02 26.08 166:49 ·. ·0.83% ·1.48% Baltimore city Baltimore, MD 162.76 25.88 165.26 ·7.20% ·12.46% Ca lvert W;shin_gton;DC-MD-VA·WV 90.84 26.13 166.84 1.10% t.96xci V'J Ca rroll Baltimore, MD 81.92 26.16 167.04 2.17% 3.9 1% 3 OJ Cedl -Philadelp~i:'-~ilmington-Atlantic City, PA-NJ-DE-MD .., 86.87 26.15 166.93 1.57% 2.8 2% .... Charles Washington, DC·MD·VA-WV 89.72 26.14 166.87 1.23% 2.20% Cl .., 0 Frederick Washington, DC-MD-VA-WV 87.09 26.14 166.93. 1.55% 2.7-7% ~ Harford Baltimore, MD .... 92.47 26.13 166 .81 0.90% 1.61 % ~ Howard Ba ltimore~MD > 93.65 26.12 166.78 0.7-6%-1.36% 3 Montgomery Washington, DC.MD-VA.WV 112.70 26.06 166.36 ·1.50% ·2.66% "' .., ~~· ·..,.:-. " <6·.06 ;:;· Washington: DC-ME>-VAWV 112.42 OJ Baltimore, MD 77.24 26.18 MASSACHUSETTS -~ .. Boston, MA-NH 1 26.05 V'J 113.62 -I Essex Boston, MA-NH 118.56 26.04 166.23 ·3.86% "'O "'O The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.1. This chart shows the difference in BM I that is expected due to sprawling development patterns. holding all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a w 5'7" person, the average height for the men and women sampled in the study. w Hampden Worcester Clinton Carver Chisago Dakota Springfield, MA NECMA Springflela, ~!'-NECMA Boston, MA-NH Boston, MA-NH !:_ai;~ng.:Eas(t"a_i;i,~ng, Ml, .• .... I. Grand Rapids-Muskegon-Holland, Ml D~tro it, Ml •.. ~ · .. Detroit-Ann Arbo·r:Flint, Ml Detroit, Ml • .,,_, Saginaw-Bay City-Mid land, Ml Minneapolis-St Paul, MN-WI Minneapolis-St Paul, MN-WI Minn~apoliJ:~"Pa"u.~ ~N-WI Minneapolis-St Paul, MN-WI " ·.:·.--:. " (]il!m~~[f'-".:'""'1>"'"""'"""""'"""""''-"'°" __ .,,.,.~.,,,L"'n"'11-"'£,...ai'~s..f!>a':!l)~N;.:WI Minneapolis-St Paul, MN-WI Min neap~lissrr~u·I, M N,WJ Minneapolis-St Paul, MN-WI ·-:::;,· !,_ .... ,.· ;..., ·,2-iiJ-,. . ; 108.58 87.77 121.56 ll:i.64, 100.26 179,;37 . ·.•;. .. -,., 99.44 _·95'.10 66.63 77.36 99.04 103.26 98.44 71.56 -~-;.~ 82.72 -'-":!·=·ff ... 107J_27 -··i. 82.25 ;~}:~1~~··,.; 105.71 '· 88.30 --·· 99.27 123.22 95.92 85.66 79.39 98.09 119.74 .-70.·12 123.09 90.36 96.80 79.85 82.01 ~7._30_. .. - 80.16 83.70 983 9_ . 83.89 26.07 166.45 ·1.02% ·1.80% 26.14 16s.9T 26.03 166.17 ·2.53% -4.47% . "" 26':os ; 166,34 ·1.61% 166.64 ·0.03% 26.21 4.05% 7.33% "' '2~~ 167.1'4 26.10 166.66 26:09 16_~·51- 26.11 166.68 0.19% 0.33% ~· .. ~ 2~.,20 167.27 26.16 167.02 2.08% 3.73% 0.45% 0.80% ~!~ i6.f4~ ~.;:l:,~~ 166.9'0· '7 • "~'l. ...... -.1.40% 26.10 166.66 0.09% 0.16% 26.17 167.09 2.48% 4.47% .'f2Gt:1i . .!f.16~.68 ' 0.23% 26.03 166.21 ·2.32% ·4.10% .... .J-,.,...,... ~ _;2.~.2p 26.02 .. 2.~~l~ ~~ "· ~ ·~ 166.~ 1.15% 26.11 166.71 0.38% 0.68% 26.16 167.04 2.16% 3.89% -~ 2~~Jf ~----~; . ..,...~<: 16~-7-~.:;. r 0-~-2~- 26.17 167.08 2.39% The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.1. This chart shows the difference in BMI that is expected due to sprawling development patterns, holding all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a Ja·ckson Ka~risas pty, MO-KS 113.43 ·26.05 166.35 -1.58'% -2.81% - Jefferson St Louis, MO-IL 93.97 26.12 166.77 0.72% 1.29% lafayette Kans as Clty, MO-KS 85.00 26.15' 166.97 J.80% 3.23'% Platte Kansas City, MO-KS 90.26 26.13 166.86 1.17% 2.09% Ray Kansas Cit y, MO-KS 74.60 26.19 167.20· 3.07% .. 5_53" St. Charles St Louis, MO-IL 108.45 26.07 166.46 ·1.00% ·1.77% St_Louis~M-0-IL tJ.8.14 26.04 166.24 -2:14% NEBRASKA Oma ha, NE-IA 118.10 26.04 166.24 ·2.13% sa·rpy q ma ha, NE-IA 10 1.76 26.0 9 166.60 -0.21% -0.37% Washington Oma ha, NE-IA 76.51 26.18 167.16 2.84% 5.11% NEVADA' Clark. -. -Las Vegas,.NV-'AZ 114.46 2'6.0 5 166.32 -1.71% NEW JERSEY Bergen Bergen-Passai c, NJ 130.41 26.00 165.97 -3.55% -6.24% Burling:ton Ph.iladilphia;'~-!JJ-101.58 26.09 166.61 -0:19% 'fo,34~ Camden Philadelphia, PA-NJ 123.76 26.02 166.12 ·2.79% -4.91% Cumberland l?hi}adelphfa -Wilmingt_on-Atlantic City, PA-NJ-DE-MD 94.16 26.12 166:77 o.7o" l .25" Essex Newark, NJ 152.13 25.92 16 5.50 -6.02% -10.46% Gloucest er Philadelph_ia, P~'.NJ 101.53 26.09 166:61 -0 .18% ·0.32% Hudson New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY·NJ·CT·PA 190.06 25.79 164.66 -10 .16% -17.38% Hu,ntt;1d.on, " ,Middle_sex:son;ier.se.t-H,unterd9n:; NJ 81.28 26.16 167.05 2.25% ,5-0'~%.i " Mercer New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ-CT-PA 11 6.27 26.04 166.28 ·1.92% ·3.39% 1• ---. Middlesex M_i·ddlesex-Sol)1.erset-Hunterdon, NJ 121.71 26.03 166.17 -2.55% -4.50% Monmouth Monmouth-Ocean, NJ 110.86 26.06 166.40 ·1.28% ·2.28% Mo~ris ;:-;1. Newark, NJ 166.62 " 101.20 26.10 -0.14% ·9-25_! Ocean Monmouth-Ocean, NJ 112.14 26.06 166.38 ·1.43% ·2.54% Passai.c Bergen-Passarc, NJ 140.41 25.96 165;75 -4'.70 % -''8.21% ;;c.. .; Salem Philadelphia, PA-NJ 89.71 26.14 166.87 1.23% 2.20% Somerset Middlesex-·Somerset-Hunterdon, NJ 97.0 1 .26.1,1 166.z~ 0.36%. Sussex Newark, NJ 91.77 26.13 166.82 0.98% 1.76% = Union N,~":ark, NJ 136.13 25.98 1~5:85 --· -4.2 1% 'f!-37% ... Warren Newark, NJ 96.66 26.11 166.72 0 .71% V1 NEWMEXl:CO Bernalillo -Al buquerque, NM 112.10 '26 .. 06 3 "' NEW YORK Albany Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY 105.13 26.08 -0.61% ·J.08% .., ... Bronx New York, NY 250.72 25.58 ' 163:3,3 ---16.~2,%_ -27.35% C"l .., Erie Buffalo-Niagara Falls, NY 106.8 1 26.08 166.49 ·0.81% -1.43% 0 ~ Greene 76.67 26.18 167.15 ... 2 :82% -5,07'!• ::r Kings New York, NY 263.65 25.54 163.0 5 -17.70% -29.31% )> 3 Li~ings!?n ~ R_.i>.cheftec,-NY . ,; !. ..... ~ 76.56 -,_,-i6'-'6. ,, :o 2.83%•, " ..... :::!. Madison Syracuse, NY 75.57 26.18 2.95% n "' R?.fhesterrNY -·, 103.62, ·26,09 •. -~.:r Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY 89.71 26.14 J.23% 2.21% V1 -t Nassau-Su'ffolk,.NY ---IJ6.56 ,·5.97 '--0 -0 The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.J. This chart shows the difference in BMI that is expected due to sprawling development patterns, holding all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a w s'7'' person, the average height for the men and women sampled in the study. UI State OHIO County New York Butler (~[roil ' Clark Delawa~e Fairfield Metro Area New York, NY ,: ~.wY~~~· ~y Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY Nassau·Suffolk, NY Charlotte,Gastonia-Rockfllll~J;l~C ± Greensboro-Winston-Salem-High Point, NC . G r.e~~;ro::wlii~~9_~·Salem..:.Hii,ttPoint,.N C Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill, NC Gre~nsb~r~-Wi,nston;Sa_lem.:.High Point,}ilC Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill, NC Char~o_!!"e,:Gasio_fl'!9.:R_?_=k H ~ii .. ~:c:sc·:_ Greensboro-Winston-Salem-High Point, NC Ch;jotte·G~~€o.nla'.Ro~~-~ill, N°C;SC Charlotte-Gastonia-Rock Hill, NC-SC Raleigh·Durham·C_haper f.'rar, NC · Greensboro-Winston-Salem-High Point, NC C_ha;lotte·.Ga~to;i~·Ro~k'Hi1i;'N-c:sc · Greensboro-Winston·Salem-High Point, NC ~hciilQtt{Ga·StoOia-Rock Hill, Ne-SC 1 Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill, NC Greensboro-Winston-Salem-High Point, NC Cincinnati-Hamilton, OH·KY·IN · C~nton-_Massillon~XlH Dayton-Springfield, OH ~:. 1'.: ~~f~c,~ti16H:KV;I~~ .~~ Cleveland·Lorain·Elyria, OH C~l~!].t;.LJ's, Of-!.' Columbus, OH Sprawl Index Score 352.07 98.52 101.73 79.85 . 98.10 79.66 83.93 9~:69 218.90 99.04 162.89 110.19 88.90 108.87 109.88 74.63 128.37 . 70.9'9 99.12 96.58 76.50 93.06 97.26 78.56 96.82 86.21 77.32 87.22 71.26 75.93 95.89 69.17 102.29 79.10 96.10 S:6:90· 115.84 81.99'- 85.77 Expected BMI 25.23 26.n 26.09 '·if :.,. 26 .. 17 26.11 ·<-2_,6~i7 26.16 -·~2~13· 25.69 .,.<'>-·._.I ,·.~.·26.10 25.88 26_.o,6. ·' 26.14 2i;,01 26.07 26:(9 26.00 26.15 -r· ... -.-s- 2syio 26.10 , 26.11 26.18 '26.12 26.11 26 .• 17 26.11 26.15 26.18 26:14· 26.20 26.18 26.11 ·26-:'2°1' 26.09 26:1.7 26.11 'i :-... "'ki5~ .,.i..:;,.. 26.05 ~r..~ i6:16 26.15 ExpectPd Weight 161.11 166.67 166.60 . ,.167.08 166.68 •.· 167.09 - 166.99 -,:~~-ui(so $ 164.03 166.66 165.26 1.66.42 166.89 166.45 166.42 167.20 166.02 166.96 1~7.28 166.66 166.72 167.16 166.79 166.70 167.11- 166.71 166.94 167.14 166.92 167.27 167.17 166.73 167.32 166.59 · i67.IO 166.73 "'<i66~ 166.29 ·'" 1_67,04 H~ 166.95 PPrcent diffprence in odds of hypertension from /\vcr·agc ·25.92% ·0.21% 0.23% ~t;:.;.:# 0'.:!!l% ·13.19% 0.11% ·7.21% -1.11% ~,;,,,., 1.33% "-~ ·1,,05% ·1.17% 3.06%. ·3.32% ... =I#~= 1.75% -.... i;r 3~J% 0.10% 0.<11% 2.84% 0 .83% 0.33% 2.58% 0.38% 1.65% 2.74% -~..i;: l.53% 3.48% 2.91% 0.49% -. .:. 3.7~% ·0.27% 2.~2%-. 0.46% ..... -~~r.!P"" l-E." ·1.87% 1.11%. 1.71% P<'rcent diff cr<'nce 1r1 odds of obe<;ity from J\vl'rage ·41.40% ·0 .37% 0 .40% 3.47% ·22.28% 0.20% ·12.48% :'.._r2.1~%_·~~ -= 2.38% -. ·1.86%- ·2.07% 5.52% ·5.84% 3.14% . 6.34ii 0.19% 0.73% 5.11% 0.68% 2.97% 4.93% -... ~ 2.75%'- 6.28% 5.24% 0.87% ·0.48% 4-;5~%~ 0.83% ·3.30% ';<,-3.89% 3.06% The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.1. This chart shows the difference in BMI that is expected due to sprawling development patterns, holding all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a 51711 person, the average height for the men and women sampled in the study. - State County Metro Area Sprawl Expected Expected Pei-cent Pp,-cent Index BMI Weight difference-in diffc,-cncc Score odds of in odds hypertension of obesity from Avc,-agc from l\verage Franklin Columbus, OH 116.72 26.04 166.27 ·1.97% ·3.48% Fulton ~?ledo,OH . . 66.83 26.21 167.37 ~o.3% J.29:c' Geauga Cleveland-Lorain-Elyria, OH 63.12 26.23 167.45 4.49% 8.13% .. Greene DJyto_n-Springf\el~, OH 91.03 26.13 166.84 1.07% 1.92% Hamilton Cincinnati, OH-KY-IN 112.45 26.06 166.37 ·1.47% ·2.61% .Lake Cleveland-Lorai_n·Elyria, OH 96.84 . 26'.ll 166.71 • 0.38% • U.6.7:% Licking Columbus, OH 84.56 26.15 166.98 1.85% 3.33% Lorain Cl.eveland·Lorain·Elyria, OH 94.50 26.12 166.76 0.66% 1.17% Lucas Toledo, OH 111.48 26.06 166.39 ·1.36% ·2.40% Madjson c~\Lmti"us, q~_ . " 83.00 26.16 167.02 2.04% 3.67% . Mahoning Youngstown-Warren, OH 98.13 26.11 166.68 0.22% 0.40% Medina ci.;.v,!'land·L~ai~·py~ia, OH 76.59 .2.6.18 167.1.6 . 2.83% 5.09%;;;. Miami Dayton-Springfield, OH 86.81 26.15 166.93 1.58% 2.84% • M;~'tgomery ·o~ll!1.:.sprl~gr:Te1d, OH 108A7, 26.01 166.46 ·1:00% ·1.78% Pickaway Columbus, OH 84.74 26.15 166.98 1.83% 3.29% Porta~e Cleveland-Akron, OH 83.97 26.16 166.99 J.93% 3.46.%. Hii1 Stark C~nton·M~ssillon, OH 106.62 26.08 166.50 ·0.78% ·1.39% Summit .~ g:.~eland·A_!.ro~ Q_H 106.62 26.08 166.50 -0.1~% ·1.:3-9%~ "" Trumbull Young_:.town·"."anen, OH 93.59 26.12 166.78 0.77% 1.37% ~...,...~....,._, U~ion 79.il 26.17 167.10 2 .. 52% -4.53lL~~ • Warren Cincinnati, OH-KY-IN 89.95 26.13 166.86 1.20% 2.15% Wood Toledo, OH 84.24 26.15 166.99 1.89.% 3.40% OKLAHOMA Canadian Oklahoma City, OK 81.11 26.16 167.06 2.27% 4.09% .-Cleveland q.klahoma City, OK 95.07 26.12 166.75. ·-0.59% 1.05.%. Creek Tulsa, OK 91.30 26.13 166.83 1.0 4% 1.86% C:og~n Ol<Y ho_ma 'City,O_K 80.83 26;17 167:06 2.3f% 4.15% McClain Oklahoma City, OK 79.97 26.17 167.08 2.41% 4.34% Oklahoma <?.klaho~a c(iy, of 106.31 26.08 :166:50 .. ·0.7.5% ·1.33% Osage Tulsa, OK 98.63 26.10 166.67 0.16% 0.29% Ok}!homa City, OK 88.26 26.14 •. '16"6.90 1.4~%, 2.521'¢.i\ Vl Tulsa, OK 87.03 26.14 166.93 1.56% 2.79% 3 "' l'~Jla,PK 26,01 ·1.02%' .., 108.64 . ""166.4~. .... -C1 Tulsa, OK 88.89 26.14 166.89 1.33% .., Portland-Vanc.9u_ver/OR·"'f I(,·,. 0 ,, 98.45 26.11 166'68 0.18% ~ .... Multnomah Portland-Vancouver, OR-WA 131.41 25.99 165.95 ·3.67% ·6.44% =r Portland.Y_a~couver, OR.WA > 108.29 26.07 3 Portland-Vanco~v;r, OR.WA 98.23 26.11 "' .., •s'l.cn t6:,1z-:! r;· "' Pittsburgh, PA 120.99 26.03 166.18 ·2.47% ·4.35% Pitts_!>urgh, PA 105.52 26-.08 166.52 ·0.1!6%~ ·1 .. 16% Vl -t Philadelphia, PA-NJ 100.15 26.10 166.64 ·0 .02% ·0.0 3% ,, ,, The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.1. This chart shows the difference in BMI that is expected due to sprawling development patterns, holding all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a w 51711 person, the average height for the men and women sampled in the study. ..., Carbon Chester . Columbia CumberlariCJ Dauphin Delaware Fayette Monroe Montgomery Northampton Perry Philadelphia Wash~ingp ',k,a~ ... Westmoreland Wyon'ilng""":'~" York Charleston Dorchester ' Greer.ville Lexington Spartanburg Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, PA J.''hiladelphi~, PM;U. Scranton-Wilkes·Barre-Hazleton, PA ~risburg·l:.ebanon'.~arlisle, PA Harrisburg·Lebanon·Carlisle, PA Rhjiadelphia, PA·N.J ':.· Pittsburgh, PA Scranton-Wilkes·Barre-·Hazleton, PA -c;;;;;ster, PA _t'hil<i.d~'tphia, PA·NJ Allentown· Bethlehem· Easton, PA Harri}burg-Lebanon-Carlisle, PA Philadelphia, PA·NJ --~~,!!ti_r:_g):.!'..A · :,. Pittsburgh, PA Scr~'to,n:.wui<e~·B~~re::Hazlet'?.n• PA ,.. York, PA Prov_idence-Fall River-:f!arwick, Rl·MA · Providence-Fall River.Warwick, RI-MA P~idenc~fatf Riv~er-.\Yafyvick, Rl-~A Providence·Fall River·Warwick, Rl·MA Augu-;ta-Aiken, Gi\'·S~ ·'' ·· Charleston·North Charleston, SC Charleston-,North C~arlest;n, SC Charleston·North Charleston, SC -~ ---~~-~ .. ~.,. !#-!" ·~ .. ~~<il:r;l'l ".t:!'."l ; Cif~el),,vill~=Sj),r;tanb'!J:g)~p.1!~r-$on,cSC . '"- Columbia, SC Gr;eil:Yfti'e-Sp~rt'anbujg-Anderson, SC,..,, Columbia, SC Greenville·Sparta-nburg·And er so~, SC. Charlotte-Gastonia-Rock Hill, NC·SC 93.99 26.12 89.84 .-26.J-3 92.46 26.13 97.64 26.ll 113.77 26.05 125.34 26.01 98.66 26.10 111.01 26.06 94.09 26.12 102.33 26.09 119.67 26.03 101:09 26.08 86.35 26.15 101:06 26.08 110.65 26.06 82.91 26.16 187.78 25.80 -100.95 2~~\o~ 100.53 26.10 78.64 -;{6~1-1 · 94.78 26.12 118.66 ·26.04 115.99 26.04 130.56 ..2{..99~ - 92.45 26.13 . 86 .. 39 26.1$"' 90.12 26.13 110.28 26.06 87.82 26.14 9'4:·t? ;:f6.12 86.41 26.15 83,78 26:i6 101.86 26.09 86.73 2_6;·15 . 84.11 26.15 ·90;3.9 ~:d-:· ~~~!i~-:. ' 89.51 26.14 ·-9:1;~3 .. 74.75 26.19 10,!11_'._ 80.92 26.17 ·~j 166.77 166.87 166.81 166.69 166.34 166.09 166.67 166.40 ·-166.77 ' 166.59 .. ' 166.21 166.'\9 166.94 166.41 167.02 164.71 166.62 166.63 "i6?;_1-i.'~ 166.76 166.29 166.86 166.~2 166.91 ,J 66_;.7'"f; ... - 166.94 161,00 166.60 166.93 166.99 0.72% 1.2-2~ 0.90% 0.28% ·1.63% '2'??% 0.16% -1.3·03 0.71% -0.28,'!'. -2.31% -0:81% 1.64% -0.84% ·1.26% 2.05% ·9.92% -0.11% ·0.06% 0.62% -1.89% 1.18% ·1.22% 1.46% .......,.,.. .-·O:~ 1.63% 1-.~ ·0.22% 1.28% • 2-'83 1.61% o.so% -2.88% '-o·,....,_··=:_ :;,"5~2_3~ 0.28% -~2.31% 1.26% -0.49% ·4.08% ··1,4,9~ 2.94% 3.69% ·16.98% •• ,0.20~ ·0.11% 1.11% -3.33% 2.12% 2.62% 2.92% The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.1. This chart shows the difference in BMI that is expected due to sprawling development patterns, holding all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a 517" person, the average height for the men and women sampled in the study. "" ~ 3: "' ... VI c: :::!. :::i uq ... ::; "' ::i::: "' ... ::+ ::; ITI ...... ...... "' n ... VI 0 ...... (fl "O ..... ... ~ l>- <: c .... a· ,, e.. l>-,, c ~ "' v;· State TEXAS County Grainger Hamilton Hawkins Jefferson Kn ox Robert~n Rutherford Sevier Shelby Sullivan Sumner Tipto~ Un icoi · Unfon . Washington Williamson Wilson Bex,,ar Brazoria ·Co.Hin Comal Dallas Denton El Paso EllisCounty ·Fort Bend Galveston G-u'°;dalup°'; Harris Hays Hidalgo Johnson Kaufman Liberty Montgomery • Parker Rockwall Travis Waller Williamson Metro Area Chattanooga,TN.°'·GA Johnson City-Kingsport-Bristol, TN-VA Knoxvilie, TN Nas_hviUe, _T_N Nashville, TN K~oxville, T~ Memphis, TN-AR-MS Johnson C_ity-Kingsport·Bristol, TN_.VA Nashville, TN Memphis, TN-AR-MS Johnson Cit y-Kings port-Bristol, TN-VA Knoxville, T_N Johnson City-Ki ngsport-Bristol, TN-VA Nashville, TN Nashvi lle, TN San Antonio, TX Houston-Galveston-Brazoria, TX DaUa·s, TX San Antonio)X Dallas, TX Da llas, TX sl P_aso, TX Dallas, TX Houst on, TX Houston-Galveston-Brazoria, TX San An_to.n,ioi:TX · Houst on, TX "'l'! ... A_!:!1tin·San "1'.~r,cos,_T~ McAllen-Edinburg-Mission, TX f;_ort ·qo;t~·~rlington, TX Dallas, TX Ho'u'ston, TX Houston, TX !'-Ort Wo.rth·Arlington, TX ~ ~ D7itas, TX . . ~~-·~- Houston, TX • y ~ j ,.. -"r • Austin-San Marcos, TX Sprawl Index Score 80.10 99.83 86.81 82.45 99.34 77.32 85.34 88.16 103.98 93.28 87.09 77.54 104.18 84.39 92.36 83.12 78.67 112.72 96.02 101.0 0 92.67 114.55 98.68 110.26 88.64 100.63 109.98 91.01. 113.25 88.93 100.30 89.94 88.42 85.00 88.10 80 .94 90.98 11'0 .62 106.79 94.45 98.61 Expected BMI 26.17 26.10. 26.15 26.16 26.10 26.18 26.15 26.14 26.09 26.12 26.14 26.18 26.09 26.15 26.13 26.16 26.17 26:06 26.11 26.10 26.13 26.0 5 26.10 26.06 26.14 26:10 26.07 26.13 26.05 26.-14. 26.10 26.13 26.14 26.15 26.1 4 26.17 26.1 3 ..:::· .. 2.6.~0_? 26.0 8 .2~.1.2 26.10 Expected Weight 167.0 8 166.65 166.93 167.03 166.66 167.14 166.96 166.90 166.55 166.79 166.93 167.14 166.55 166.98 166.81 167.01 167.11 166.36 166.73 166.62' 166.80 16632 166.67 166.'12 166.89 166.63 166.42 166.84~- 166.35 166 •. 88 166.64 ~.166.86 166.90 166.97 166.90 167.06 166.84 166.49 16?,.7!> !!""" 166.67 Percent diffcrcncp in odds of hvpertension from Avcr;ige 2.40% 0.02% 1.58% 2.11 % 0.08% 2'.74% 1.76% 1.42% ·0.47% 0.80% 1.55% 2.71% ·0.50% 1.87% 0.91% 2.03% 2.57% ·1.50% 0.48% ·0 .12% 0 .88% ·1.72,% 0 .16% -1:21% 1.36% --... ·0.08% ·1.18% -1.08%· ·1.56% ~'r-'k..,,_ l.~3% ·0.04% 1.2~% ' 1.39% I.Sp~ 1.43% . ~·2.29% 1.08% ~ ·1.26'% ·0.80% 0:_6!!.% 0.17% PNccnt difference in odds of obesitv from J\vC'r.::tge 4.31% o .. 04%·~ 2.84% 3.79% 0 .14% 4.93%~ 3.16% .2.54% ·0.84% 1.43% 2.77% 4.88% ·0.88% 3.36% 1.63% . 3.64% 4.63% ·2.66% ~ 0.85% ·0.21% 1.57% ·3.04% 0.28% ·"2.15% 2.44% -0~13~---::,,..-.,.; ·2.0 9% l.92!r-. .,...,. ·2.77% :,.2.37i~-:: ·0 .0 6% .......,~ ~ 2.16'% - 2.49% 3:;f3% • 2.56% ·1.43% 1.18%., ~ 0.30% The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.1. This chart shows the difference in BMI that is expected due to sprawling development patterns, holding all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a 5'7" person, the average height for the men and women sampled in the study. ----- Vl 3 "" .., ... C'l .., 0 ~ ... ~ > 3 ~ .., ._,., _.; /- 1:07.zi ,26_,IJT"· -,. 114.43 26.05 106.07 26.08 103.17 26.09 t~ 93.89 ---~~;J~ 72.45 26.19 -· :..Y.. ·~~ ''·. -117.81 -.T26(()4:--~ 82.82 26.16 67.59 2~:¥~ 74.97 26.19 ~c?:Q;~h .. .,,:~-~.Q ..,:':{ -90.41 94:5·7 76.49 131,_92 124.93 105.81 --~9'9t:9s;;7.~':;;:~t\~: ·:i· 127.18 .!1:9.47 87.90 . l?;t~-._. 113.91 7$;1"4-;c(~'. 88.43 10.3.jO 76.22 · BQ:t.s - 90.44 26.13 I' -~-''""-:z6 r2· ··: .-. .:.. ... _ .... 26.18 -:z5:99 26.01 ~~,{)_~ 26.18 :.26~~;-~ i:;; .~ .. 26.13 167.25 3.33% 166 .. 2ii,;. ~ ~~~ ~~~ 167.02 2.07% 161.:f5· '""""~'=" 3~9~ 167.19 3.02% 1.15% 167.16 2.84% 5.11% 165.94 -3~72:- 166.09 -2.92% -5.15% -0.69% ·1.23% 166.90 1.39% 2.48% The average BMI for the population sampled was 26.1. This chart shows the difference in BMI that is expected due to sprawling development patterns, holding all other factors equal. The expected weight is based on a 517" person, the average height for the men and women sampled in the study. :::: "' "' VI c: :::!. :I oq ... :::r "' ::c "' "' :;-:::r fTI ...,, ...,, "' ("\ ... VI 0 ...,, IJl "O ..., "' :Ii )>. <: c ... c;· "' c )>. "' c '[ <;;· Smart Growth America is a coalition of nearly 100 advocacy organizations that have a stake in how metropolitan expansion affects our environment, quality of life and economic sustainability. Our diverse coalition partners include national, state and local groups working on behalf of the environment, historic preservation, social equity, land conservation, neighborhood redevelopment, farmland protection, labor, town planning, and public health. SGA'a website provides introductory and in -depth information on all aspects of smart growth. Visit www.smartgrowthamerica.org The goal of The Surface Transportation Policy Project is to ensure that transportation policy and investments help conserve energy, protect environmental and aesthetic quality, strengthen the economy, promote social equity, and make communities more livable. We emphasize the needs of people, rather than vehicles, in assuring access to jobs, services, and recreational opportunities. www.transact.org To order more copies of Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl, please go to www.smartgrowthamerica.org for a free download or send $15 to Smart Growth America, 1200 18th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036. You may also call us at 202.207.3350 or email us at sga@smartgrowthamerica.org. Policy Guides Page 1 ot22 m .rl , n Pl r nln A.. iallt n 11.,ki1J11!/ft'ill 1'lur1111u11i11r·,· tr.i1•r•1·r1 Research Legislation & Policy Your Community Publications Knowledge Exchange Consultant Services About APA News Education Jobs & Careers Legislation & Policy I Policy Guides Member Services Login ~onferences & Workshops ~ Printer-Friendly Format Policy Guide on Planning for Sustainability Adopted by Chapter Delegate Assembly, April 16, 2000 Ratified by Board of Directors, April 17, 2000, New York, NY I. FINDINGS There is growing concern for the issue of sustainability -whether the Earth's resources will be able to meet the demands of a growing human population that has rising aspirations for consumption and quality of life, while maintaining the rich diversity of the natural environment or biosphere. Patterns of human development -physical, social, and economic -affect sustainability at the local and the global level. City and regional planning is integrally related to defining how, where, and when human development occurs, which affects resource use. Planners can therefore play a crucial role in improving the sustainability of communities and the resources that support them. There are several dimensions to the "sustainability" issue: 1 -We want to sustain communities as good places to live, and that offer economic and other opportunities to their inhabitants. 2 -We want to sustain the values of our society -things like individual liberty and democracy. 3 -We want to sustain the biodiversity of the natural environment, both for the contribution that it makes to the quality of human life and for its own inherent value. 4 -We want to sustain the ability of natural systems to provide the life- supporting "services" that are rarely counted by economists, but which have recently been estimated to be worth nearly as much as total gross human economic product. A sustainable community is one that is consistent with all of these dimensions of sustainability. A range of indicators suggest that there is a growing gap between human consumption of resources and Earth's capacity to supply those resources and reabsorb resulting wastes. Several of these are described below: Global Indications of Unsustainability Global Warming. Human activity, particularly the combustion of fossil fuels, adds gases like carbon dioxide and methane to the atmosphere. The world's scientific community continues to document that this buildup of gases is altering global climatic patterns. Over the past century, the land surface temperature worldwide has risen an average of 0.8 -1.0 Fahrenheit degrees. Over the same period, average precipitation has increased about 1 % while the worldwide sea level has risen about 6-8 inches. http://www.planning.org/policyguides/~tt~tfli~.ability.µt~ Search Planning.org My APA ID or E-mail: Password: ... password help Create a Login Join APA APA is an outspoken advocate for planning. Become a member and 00 : join thousands of people who share your dedication to building strong, vibrant communities. Make a Donation -Hurricane Katrina Relief -Other Donations ... APA Advocate A biweekly e-newsletter on federal legislative and public policy issues of interest to planners and communities. View current issue Read previous editions legislative Action Center Track legislation, read alerts, e- mail Congress, find local media. And, much more' Visit APA's Updated Action Center Join APA's advocacy network and receive action alerts. 10/1/2007 !'ollcy Umdes Soil Deg radation. For the past 50 years, agricultural mismanagement has resulted in severe degradation of the Earth's soils, erosion being the most common type of degradation. Soi l lost to wind and water erosion ranges from 5-10 tons per hectare annually in Africa, Europe, and Australia, 10-20 tons per hectare in North, Central, and South America, and 30 tons per hectare in Asia. Given that soil is created at roughly one ton per hectare per year, current rates of erosion are depleting the nutrient base of agriculture. Deforestation. The world has lost 1.5 billion acres of forest in the last 200 years. Tropical rainforests, which support more than 60% of all known plant species are currently disappearing at a rate of 2.4 acres (two football fields) per second, 214,000 acres (larger than New York City) per day, and 78,000,000 acres (the size of New Mexico) per year. Species Extinction. Human activity is creating a "biodiversity deficit" by destroying ecosystems faster than nature can create new ones. Rates of species extinction are currently estimated at one hundred to one thousand times higher than pre-human levels. In North America, an estimated 36% of fish, 35% of amphibians, 17% of mammals, and 11 % of birds are either in jeopardy or are already extinct. Declining Fisheries. After many years of continually increasing worldwide seafood catches, the tonnage of seafood harvested peaked in 1989 and has plateaued since. Harvests for many species have declined. For example, the annual salmon catch in British Columbia fell by nearly 50% from 1985 to 1995. Economic Inequity. The fifth of the world's people living in the highest-income countries controls 86 per cent of world gross domestic product (GDP), 82 per cent of world export markets, 68 per cent of foreign direct investments, and 74 pe r cent of world telephone lines. In addition to these global indicators, a variety of local and regional indicators also show unsustainable trends. The reasons that our lifestyles are unsustainable are varied and complex. Here are a few of the key factors contributing to unsustainability. What is Contributing to Unsustainability? Overconsumption. Over the last 40 years, the increase in per capita energy and material consumption has increased even faster than the world's human population. Scientists estimate that our present consumption level is exceeding the Earth's ca rrying capacity by 30%. We are making up that difference by depleting "natural capital". The United States leads the world in material consumption and waste generation. The 'ecological footprint' (estimated amount of land to support consumption and waste generation patterns) of the typical U.S. resident per year is 25 .5 acres, compared to 6.9 acres for the average world resident and 2 acres for the average resident in India. http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 2 of22 Coalitions APA works with other organizations on planning issues ranging from sprawl to transportation. Browse a list of APA's coalition partners, and visit their websites. 10/1 /2007 Policy Guides Population Growth. The world's human population is growing at a rate of 385,000 per day. Almost all of this growth (98%) is occurring in developing nations. Many developing nations remain impoverished because economic development cannot keep pace. Even in the United States, where the growth rate is a relatively modest 1.1 %, the nation's population will double in roughly 60 years. Dependence upon Non-Renewable Resources. Modern economies rely on a host of substances that are not part of nature's cycle of growth and decay. Because these substances are not renewable, their supplies are constantly diminishing. This causes competition for limited resources, with societal repercussions and resulting damage to the environment. Pollution. The use of substances that accumulate in the ecosphere and are not part of nature's cycle causes environmental pollution in various forms. Carbon dioxide has increased 30% over its natural occurrence in our atmosphere. Poisonous elements mined from below the Earth's crust, such as cadmium and lead, are found at five and eight times, respectively, their natural rates in the ecosphere. Over 70,000 chemical compounds are now present and accumulating in the ecosphere. Many of these may be toxic to humans or other species. Environmentally and Socially Destructive Development Patterns. Historically, human development has not considered the natural processes upon which we depend, thereby damaging or destroying the systems that support us. The typical suburb paves over land that was once the habitat of other species. It also reduces opportunities for social interaction, once as easy as walking down the street to go to the corner store. Today, fewer than 10% of daily commute trips in the U.S. are by walking or bicycling. Inequities in Resource Distribution. Between 1960 and 1994, the disparity in per capita income between the richest and poorest fifth of the world's nations rose from 30: 1 to 78: 1. The historic solution to poverty -economic growth -- has generally served to exacerbate inequities, while degrading the resources upon which all life depends. Limited Public Participation. Problems arise when sectors of society are disenfranchised from political and economic decision-making, contributing to social and economic inequalities. Limited public participation and lack of equity undermine the ability to sustain the natural and community systems upon which al l people depend. One of the root causes of the problems described above is the failure to recognize the fundamental limits to Earth's ability to withstand alterations to its natural systems. As a result, most Americans consume wastefully, using our limited resources inefficiently and inequitably. People need to acknowledge that we are an interconnected part of nature. Policies and actions must reflect the important linkages among a healthy environment, a strong economy, and social well being. Indeed, it may be necessary to change some of the operational definitions of "strong economy" and "social well being. http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 3 ot22 10/1/2007 Polley Umdes These global problems are reflected in --and are affected by --localized unsustainable activity in communities and regions throughout the United States and in other regions of the Earth. Many of these environmentally, economically and socially unsustainable practices are directly connected to local -including remotely influenced local -decision-making. Some examples are summarized as follows: U.S. Indications of Community Unsustainability Suburban Sprawl. Current growth in urban and suburban land use far exceeds the population growth in many major metropolitan centers in the U.S. Between 1970 and 1990, for example, metropolitan Chicago's population grew by 4% while the amount of land dedicated to housing grew by 46%. During that same period, metropolitan Cleveland's population fell by 11 % but developed land still increased by 33%. This trend has resulted in increased costs for public services, the decline of central cities, increased vehicle miles traveled and emissions of carbon dioxide, the destruction of farmland and open space, and arguably a loss of community. Segregation/Unequal Opportunity. Communities all over the United States continue to be largely divided along economic and racial lines, both physically and socially. Poverty is increasing among whites as well as minorities. Minority groups continue to have less access to economic opportunities, adequate food and shelter, and needed services. Nationwide, nearly 28% of people of color live below the poverty level, as compared to about 11 % of whites. Loss of Agricultural Land and Open Space. From 1970 to 1990, more than 19 million acres (30,000 square miles) of rural lands were developed. Every year, construction transforms 400,000 acres of high quality farmland. This amounts to 45.6 acres every hour of every day. Such development weakens the agricultural basis upon which people depend, as well as the natural resources upon which all life depends. Depletion and Degradation of Water Resources. Groundwater over-pumping is occurring in many of the nation's regions. In California, groundwater overdraft averages 1.6 billion cubic meters per year, which amounts to 15% of the state's annual groundwater use. Depletion of the High Plains Aquifer System, which underlies nearly 20% of all irrigated land in the U.S., totals 325 billion cubic meters while current annual depletion is estimated at 12 billion cubic meters. Despite progress made under the Clean Water Act, carcinogens have been found in wells in fourteen different states throughout the Corn Belt and many of the nation's waterways remain badly polluted. In addition, the continuing increase in impermeable surfaces such as parking lots and buildings acts to prevent groundwater recharge, create destructive runoff patterns, and destroy the treatment capacity of natural systems. Loss of Wetlands. Among the most productive ecosystems in the world, wetlands on non-federal lands in the U.S. are disappearing at a rate of 70,000 to 90,000 acres annually. In the 1600s, over 220 million acres of wetlands are thought to have existed in the lower 48 states. By the 1980s, only an http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 4 of22 10/1/2007 Policy Guides estimated 103 million acres remained. Traffic Congestion and Air Pollution. Vehicle-clogged roadways and deteriorating air quality diminish quality of life and health for millions of Americans in cities, suburbs, and outlying areas. Since 1970, vehicle miles traveled have increased by 121 %, more than four times the population growth over that same period. Traffic congestion is estimated to cost the nation $168 billion in lost productivity. Although air quality has improved in several metropolitan areas due to more stringent emission standards, 46 million Americans continue to live in counties that do not meet federal air quality standards. Disproportionate Exposure to Environmental Hazards. Low-income people and people of color continue to be disproportionately exposed to environmental hazards in urban and rural areas. In Los Angeles County, California, minorities are three times as likely as whites to live within half a mile of a large, hazardous waste treatment, storage, or disposal facility. Nationwide, Black children from poor families are five times as likely to have dangerous blood lead levels than wealthier White children. White children from households with annual incomes of under $6,000 are three times as likely as Wh ite children from families with incomes over $15,000 to have dangerous blood levels of lead. II. FRAMING THE ISSUE Sustainability is the capability to equitably meet the vital human needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs by preserving and protecting the area's ecosystems and natural resources. The concept of sustainability describes a condition in which human use of natural resources, required for the continuation of life, is in balance with Nature's ability to replenish them. However, humans are depleting and degrading many resources faster than Earth's natural systems can replenish them, and human consumption continues to grow every year. This is a far- reaching issue that extends well beyond the realm of today's urban and regional planner. Nevertheless, planners are in a position to protect the natural environment and its ability to support human life by working with communities to implement concepts of sustainability in their current and long range planning daily practices. Planning for sustainability promotes responsible development -not anti- development. It requires a democratic process of planning to achieve the greatest common good for all segments of our population, protect the health of the environment and assure future generations of the resources they will need to survive and progress. Specifically, planning for sustainability includes the following processes, practices and outcomes. Planning processes include: • Making planning decisions in a holistic and fully-informed manner that involves all segments of the community and the public and private sectors. http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 5 of22 10/1/2007 Polley Guides • Educating all age groups to raise public understanding of and regard for the future consequences of current planning decisions and ultimately change human behavior. Planning practices include: • Developing a future-oriented vision, which look beyond current needs and recognizes environmental limits to human development. • Fostering projects/activities that promote economic development by: efficiently and equitably distributing resources and goods; minimizing, reusing and recycling waste; and protecting natural ecosystems. • Upholding a widely held ethic of stewardship that strongly encourages individuals and organizations to take full responsibility for the economic, environmental, and social consequences of their actions, balancing individual needs and wants with nature and the public good. • Taking leadership in the drafting and implementation of local, regional and state policies that support sustainability, such as APA's Growing Smart statutes. Planning outcomes include: • Local and regional development patterns that expand choice and opportunity for all persons, recognizing a special responsibility to address the needs of those that are disadvantaged .. • Resilient, diverse, and self-sufficient local economies that meet the needs of residents and build on the unique characteristics of the community to the greatest extent possible. • Communities with a healthy economy, environment and social climate that function in harmony with natural ecosystems and other species and allow people to lead healthy, productive and enjoyable lives. III. POLICY POSITIONS A. GENERAL POLICY OBJECTIVES The American Planning Association and its Chapters have identified four basic objectives for planning toward greater sustainability that can be used as a framework for policy development at each level of decision-making -local, state, regional, and federal -in the broad range of matters with which planners are concerned -land use, housing, transportation, economic development -among others. The four objectives are based upon a framework developed by a group of scientists in Sweden and the U.S combining knowledge of physics, biology, and other fundamental sciences with understanding of societal decision-making. Using these basic objectives as a guiding framework, planners and decision- makers can develop policies, legislation, and action plans toward sustainability that are appropriate to their particular circumstances and communities. For example, efforts to reduce the use of fossil fuels ( Objective l)may take very different form in an urban settlement compared to efforts in rural communities. Similarly, initiatives to improve the quality of life for http://www. planning. org/po licyguides/sustainabili ty .htm Page 6 of22 10/1/2007 Policy Guides disadvantaged residents may be very different in a bedroom suburb than in an inner-city ne ighborhood (Objective 4). The Specific Policies in the section that follows are guided by these objectives. The attached Appendix illustrates how these objectives can be used systematically to generate a comprehensive strategy of planning actions in the direction of sustainability. While any one of these objectives pursued separately is a worthy endeavor, it is the integrated, comprehensive application of all four objectives that is needed to move toward sustainability in planning and development; hence, no one objective is more important or of greater value than the others. OBJECTIVES OF APA'S STRATEGY FOR PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABILITY Planning for sustainability requires a systematic, integrated approach that brings together environmental, economic and social goals and actions directed toward the following four objectives: 1. Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels, extracted underground metals and minerals. Reason: Unchecked, increases of such substances in natural systems will eventually cause concentrations to reach limits -as yet unknown -at which irreversible changes for human health and the environment will occur and life as we know it may not be possible. 2. Reduce dependence on chemicals and other manufactured substances that can accumulate in Nature. Reason: Same as before. 3. Reduce dependence on activities that harm life-sustaining ecosystems. Reason: The health and prosperity of humans, communities, and the Earth depend upon the capacity of Nature and its ecosystems to reconcentrate and restructure wastes into new resources. 4. Meet the hierarchy of present and future human needs fairly and efficiently. Reason: Fair and efficient use of resources in meeting human needs is necessary to achieve social stability and achieve cooperation for achieving the goals of the first three guiding policies. B. SPECIFIC POLICY POSITIONS http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 7 of22 10/1/2007 Polley Guides Planners have a leadership role in forming and implementing the strategies by which communities seek to use resources efficiently, to protect and enhance quality of life, and to create new businesses to strengthen their economies, and supporting infrastructures. The best practices of comprehensive community planning -the way we plan the physical layout, or land use, of our communities, is key to sustainable land use. Two main features of our land use practices over the past several decades have converged to generate haphazard, inefficient, and unsustainable development sprawl -zoning regulations that separate housing, jobs, and shopping, and low density development that requires the use of the car. Our economic development and infrastructure planning practices present opportunities for us to encourage businesses and community facilities that offer creative, economically beneficial solutions to wasteful resource use and environmental degradation. Only through the best planning practices can we hope to create healthy communities that can sustain our generation and secure a promising and susta inable future for all children. The listed order of specific policies follows the logic of the four objectives and does not reflect an implied priority of action or importance. As is the case with the four policy objectives, while each of the specific policies are of merit if followed separately, they need to be pursued as a whole in an integrated, comprehensive, systems approach in order to move toward sustainability in community planning and development. While certain policies may be of greater immediate relevance to particular regions, levels of government, and planning expertise, planners can contribute substantially to communities and to society through maintaining this perspective of the whole in our thinking and in our planning approaches. 1. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning policies and legislation that encourage alternatives to use of gas-powered vehicles. Such alternatives include public transit, alternatively-fueled vehicles, bicycle and pedestrian routes, and bicycle and pedestrian-friendly development design. Reason: Use of privately-owned gas-powered vehicles significantly contributes to increasing carbon dioxide concentration and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at the global level, and to air pollution, as well as nuisance and societal costs of traffic congestion at the local and regional levels. Planning and development actions that reduce the need to drive can in turn help to reduce carbon dioxide and other emissions, as well as help reduce traffic congestion and add system capacity. 2. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning policies and legislation that encourage all types of development to use alternative renewable energy sources and meaningful energy conservation http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htrn Page 8 of22 10/1/2007 Policy Guides measures. Reason: Use of alternative renewable energy sources will contribute to reduced dependence upon fossil fuels for heat and power, also helping to reduce concentrations of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere. Increased use of alternative energy sources will also contribute to healthier, more stable local economies through reduced dependence on one or two energy sources whose own economic future is uncertain. 3. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning policies and legislation that encourage development, agriculture, and other land uses that minimize or eliminate the use of extracted underground substances such as mercury, cadmium, phosphorus. Reason: The increasing concentrations in natural systems of extracted underground metals and minerals -for example, mercury, cadmium, phosphorus -which do not readily disappear or get re-absorbed by the Earth -are increasing toxicity in natural systems. This in turn jeopardizes ecosystems, wildlife, water supplies, soil, food, and human health. Development and agriculture that reduces or eliminates the use of these substances can contribute to the increased long-term safety of human, animal and plant health, and ecosystems both for the near future and for generations to come. 4. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning policies and legislation that encourage development and businesses to reduce the use of chemicals and synthetic compounds in their construction and building materials, operations, products, and services. Reason: Chemicals and synthetic substances that do not easily break down also are increasing in society, producing increased toxicity in ecosystems, water supplies, soil, food, the built environment, the working environment, and human health. Planning, economic development strategies, and policies that affect the built environment can help safeguard the natural and man-made environments through encouraging development that reduces or eliminates the use of these substances. 5. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning policies and legislation that encourage methods of landscape design, landscape and park maintenance, and agriculture that reduce or eliminate the use of pesticides, herbicides, and synthetic fertilizers as well as encouraging the use of compost and conserving water. Reason: Pesticides, herbicides, and synthetic fertilizers http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 9 of22 10/1/2007 Policy Guides accumulate in natural systems, water supplies, soil, food, animals, and humans. Landscape design, maintenance of parks and open space, and agricultural practices that use alternative approaches to pest control can help reduce toxicity in ecosystems, water, food, and human health. 6. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning policies and legislation that result in compact and mixed-use development that minimizes the need to drive, re-uses existing, infill, and brownfields sites that have been thoroughly reclaimed and remediated before using open land, and that avoids the extension of sprawl. ("Sprawl" refers to low-density, land- consumptive, center-less, auto-oriented development typically located on the outer suburban fringes). APA's "Growing Smart" Initiative is consistent with this Policy Position. Reason: Scattered, /and-consumptive development is bringing about the deterioration and loss of open lands, forests, ecosystems and species. These are essential elements of Nature's capacity to re-create the materials upon which all life - including ours -depends. Threatened also is the traditional and historic character of our communities and countrysides -a major source of community "quality of life", heritage and economic viability. Encouraging compact development and redevelopment of existing sites can avoid further encroachment upon diminishing land and other natural resources, helping to safeguard these for our well-being and those of future generations. 7. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning, development, and preservation policies and legislation that conserve undeveloped land, open space, agricultural land, protect water and soil quality, consciously restore ecosystems, and that minimize or eliminate the disruption of existing natural ecosystems and floodplains. Such policies and legislation include Growing Smart and other innovative planning approaches. Reason: Safeguarding important lands, water, wetlands, soil, forests, coastal areas as natural ecosystems also helps to preserve the productivity and diversity of life upon which human life and well-being depends .. Efforts are needed to protect the critical land mass required to maintain the level of agricultural production needed to maintain viable agricultural operations and provide sufficient food supply for our population. These critical natural and open space resources contribute as well to "quality of life" as an essential part of local and regional community character. 8. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 10 of22 1011/2007 Policy Guides policies and legislation that encourage forms of development, business, and agriculture that reduce the use of water, re-using wastewater on-site, and that employ innovative wastewater treatment that minimizes or eliminates the use of chemicals (example: using plants for sewage treatment). Reason: Groundwater over-pumping is occurring in many of the nation's regions. Reducing use of and re-using water using alternatives to chemical treatment, can use this resource more efficiently, allowing for its renewal through groundwater recharge, and minimizing or eliminating increased concentrations of chemicals in natural systems. 9. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning policies and legislation at all levels of government that support and implement sustainable development policies that seek to equitably protect public health, safety and welfare, and which incorporate the needs of those currently disenfranchised in the process. Reason: Certain planning decisions may improve the quality of life for some individuals at the expense of others for example, constructing a roadway, siting a bus depot or sewage treatment plant, or building housing near an industrial zone. This problem is acute in disadvantaged communities where equal consideration, fair siting decisions, and open planning processes are not always offered. Sustainable planning and development goals aim to provide equal protection and access to opportunities in all communities regardless of income status, race, gender, or ethnicity. 10. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning policies and legislation encouraging businesses, communities, institutions and development that pursue reduction and re-use of by-products and waste, especially approaches that also employ waste as a resource, such as eco- industrial development. Reason: Reducing the amount of wastes and by-products reduces the likelihood of pollution while also reducing disposal problems and related costs for communities and businesses alike. Communities and businesses that make use of their own or each other's excess energy, water, and materials by-products can reduce or eliminate disposal and pollution problems and save, if not generate, significant revenues. 11. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning policies and legislation encouraging participatory and partnership approaches to planning, including planning for sustainability, integrally involving local community residents in setting the vision for and developing plans and actions http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 11 of 22 10/1/2007 .Policy Guides for their communities and regions. Planning decisions that follow should be consistent with those community visions. Reason: Plans that are citizen-based, reflecting citizen intents and visions for their communities' futures, have the highest probability of successful adoption and implementation. Citizen participation in planning helps ensure fair and efficient targeting of resources to community needs. 12. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support initiatives and partnerships with other organizations that: a) support research and development of technology promoting the four general policy objectives for sustainability; and b) provide best available economic, social, and environmental data and indicators on impacts, alternatives, costs, and benefits for integrated decision-making at all levels of government. Reasons: Well-informed policy choices that take into consideration the fundamental links among the economy, the environment, and society will be more likely to result in actions that serve all three rather than one at the expense of the others. Most of the innovation or technology to achieve greater sustainability either does not exist, is in the early stages of development, or is not readily available. For example, the use of alternative fuels is growing. However, some private users or transit authorities are reluctant to purchase alternative fuel vehicles because the fueling stations are scarce and the technology is still new. 13. The American Planning Association and its Chapters support planning policies, programs, and state and federal legislation that support incentives and other economic tools to improve the sustainability of our natural environment, enhance natural resources, and improve community subdivision and building design standards. Reason: Economic tools such as incentives hold promise for bringing about the implementation of sustainable development. Local, state, and federal legislation can support and strengthen the use of these approaches. Appendix A Planning Actions Toward Sustainability [The following section is not APA policy, but rather a guide to the user showing examples of actions planners can take in support of sustainability.] This Appendix contains examples of how the four guiding objectives can be employed as a framework to systematically generate a comprehensive strategy http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htrn Page 12of22 1011 /2007 Policy Guides of specific planning actions toward sustainability. The four principles are applied to a range of areas for which planners are concerned -land use, transportation, housing & building, economic development, open space and recreation, infrastructure, growth management, floodplain management, watershed planning, and planning processes and education. The appropriateness of a specific action to, say -reduce fossil fuels -wi ll vary from community to community and region to region, as well as from level to level of governmental responsibility. Hence, the most fruitful planning approach may be for communities and agencies themselves to generate a planning and policy agenda toward sustainability, using the four guiding objectives as a framework in a participatory planning process. I. Land Use Actions toward sustainability: A. Reduced dependence upon fossil fuels, underground metals, and minerals by promoting: 1. Compact development that minimizes the need to drive 2. A mix of integrated community uses --housing, shops, workplaces, schools, parks, civic facilities --within walking or bicycling distance 3. Human-scaled development that is pedestrian-friendly 4. Development oriented around public transit 5. Home-based occupations and work that reduce the need to commute 6. Local food production and agriculture that reduces need for long-range transport of food. B. Reduction of activities that encroach upon nature through: 1. Guiding development to existing developed areas and minimizing development in outlying, undeveloped areas 2. Maintaining a well-defined "edge" around each community that is permanently protected from development 3. Remediation and redevelopment of brownfield sites and other developed lands that suffer from environmental or other constraints 4. Promote regional and local designs that respect the regional ecosystems and natural functions which support human communities. 5. Creation of financial and regulatory incentives for infill development; elimination of disincentives C. Meeting human needs fairly and efficiently by: 1. Eliminating disproportionate environmental burdens and http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 13 ot22 10/1/2007 Policy Guides pollution experienced by historically disadvantaged communities. II. Transportation Actions toward sustainability: A. Reduced dependence upon fossil fuels through: 1. Reduction in vehicle trips and vehicle miles traveled through compact, infill, and mixed use development 2. Use of alternatives to the drive-alone automobile, including walking, bicycling, and public transit 3. Development and use of vehicles powered by renewable fuel sources 4. Local street design s that encourage pedestrian and bicycle use and discourage high speed traffic 5. Street designs that support/enhance access between neighborhoods and to neighborhood-based commercial developments. B. Meeting human needs fairly and efficiently, by: 1. Providing affordable, efficient transportation alternatives for everyone, especially low-income households, elders, and others comprising 30% of the national population that cannot or do not own cars III. Housing and Building Actions toward sustainability: A. Reduced dependence upon fossil fuels, extracted underground metals, and minerals through: 1. Solar-oriented design of development 2. Use of regenerative energy heating and cooling source alternatives to fossil fuels 3. Provision of housing near places of employment 4. Selection of building materials with low "embodied energy," which require less energy-intensive production methods and long-distance transport B. Reduced dependence upon chemicals and unnatural substances through : 1. Use of chemical-free and toxic-free building materials 2. Reduction of waste and recycling of building waste materials and promoting recycling by residents 3. Landscape design standards that minimize the use of pesticides and herbicides http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 14of22 101112007 Policy Guides C. Reduction of activities that encroach upon nature, through : 1. Reuse of existing buildings and sites for development 2. Compact and clustered residential development, including reduced minimum lot sizes 3. Removal of code obstacles to using recycled materials for building 4. Water conservation measures, to minimize environmentally destructive side effects of developing new water sources 5. Responsible stormwater management that reuses and restores the quality of on-site run-off -(example,- constructed marsh or wetlands systems). 6. Reduction or elimination of impervious paving materials 7. Use of recycled bu ilding materials, helping to minimize the mining of virgin materials 8. Use of "cradle-to grave" (life cycle) analysis in decision - making for materials and construction techniques. 9. Recycling of building construction waste materials and appropriate deconstruction techniques. D. Meeting human needs fairly and efficiently, by providing for: 1. Communities and housing developments that are socially cohesive, reduce isolation, foster community spirit, and sharing of resources (example: cohousing) 2. Housing that is affordable to a variety of income groups within the same community 3. A diversity of occupants in terms of age, social, and cultural groups 4. Housing located near employment centers. IV. Economic Development Actions toward sustainability A. Encourage businesses that reduce dependence upon fossil fuels, extracted underground metals, and minerals; for example, businesses that: 1. Reduce employee and product transport vehicle trips 2. Use regenerative energy alternatives to fossil fuel, or that are working to reduce dependence on fossil fuel 3. Do not use or are reducing use of cadmium, lead, and other potentially toxic metals and minerals that can accumulate in the biosphere. 4. Are locally-based or home-based, reducing or eliminating the need to commute. http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 15of22 10/1/2007 Policy Guides B. Encourage businesses that reduce dependence upon chemicals and unnatural substances; for example, enterprises that: 1. Actively seek ways to minimize the use of toxic manufactured substances 2. Meet or exceed clean air standards 3. Minimize or reduce use of chemicals and employ proper disposal and recycling mechanisms for these 4. Use agricultural methods that reduce or minimize use of pesticides, herbicides, and manufactured fertilizers 5. Use byproducts of other processes or whose wastes can be used as the raw materials for other industrial processes C. Encourage businesses that reduce activities that encroach upon nature; for example, enterprises that: 1. Use recycled or by-products of other businesses, minimizing the use of virgin raw materials 2. Prevent activities that emit waste or pollutants into the environment 3. Use agricultural approaches that build up rather than deplete topsoil, and conserve or minimize water use 4. Maintain natural terrain, drainage, and vegetation, minimizing disruption of natural systems 5. Re-use processed water. D. Encourage businesses that meet human needs fairly and efficiently; for example, enterprises that: 1. Fulfill local employment and consumer needs without degrading the environment 2. Promote financial and social equity in the workplace 3. Create vibrant community-based economies with employment opportunities that allow people economic self-determination and environmental health 4. Encourage locally-based agriculture, such as community supported agriculture, providing a nearby source of fresh, healthy food for urban and rural populations V. Open Space/Recreation Actions toward sustainability A. Reduced dependence upon fossil fuels, extracted underground metals, minerals, by: http ://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 16of22 10/1 /2007 Policy Guides 1. Providing recreational facilities within walking and bicycling distance 2. Using local materials and native plants in facility design to reduce transport distances and reduce maintenance 3. Landscape and park maintenance minimizing use of equipment powered by fossil fuels B. Reduced dependence upon chemicals and synthetic substances; for example by 1. Use alternatives to chemical pesticides and herbicides in park and facility maintenance (example: integrated pest management) C. Activities that reduce encroachment upon nature, such as: 1. Funding for open space acquisition 2. Preservation of wilderness areas 3. Urban gardens, community gardens 4. Preservation of wildlife habitats and biological diversity of area ecosystems 5. On-site composting of organic waste 6. Restoration of damaged natural systems through regenerative design approaches 7. Creation of systems of green spaces within and among communities 8. Development of responsible alternatives to landfilling of solid waste 9. Using regionally native plants for landscaping 10. Encouraging landscape and park maintenance that reduce the use of mowers, edgers, and leaf blowers VI. Infrastructure Actions toward sustainability: A. Reduced dependence upon fossil fuels, extracted underground metals, minerals, by promoting: 1. Facilities that employ renewable energy sources, or reduce use of fossil fuel for their operations and transport needs B. Reduced dependence upon chemicals and synthetic substances, by promoting: 1. Treatment facilities that remove or destroy pathogens without creating chemically-contaminated byproducts http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 17of22 10/1/2007 Policy Guides Page 18 of 22 2. Design approaches and regulatory systems that focus on pollution prevention, re-use and recycling. C. Reduction of activities that encroach upon nature, through: 1. Promotion of innovative sewage and septic treatment that discharges effluent meeting or exceeding federal drinking water standards while minimizing or eliminating the use of chemicals (example: greenhouse sewage treatment facilities) 2. Recognition of the "cradle to grave" costs of waste generation and disposal 3. Promotion of and removal of regulatory barriers to composting and graywater reuse systems D. Meeting human needs fairly and efficiently, by: 1. Cleaning, conserving, and reusing wastewater at the site, neighborhood or community level, reducing the need for large, expensive collection systems and regional processing facilities VII. Growth Management Actions toward sustainability: A. Reduced dependence upon fossil fuels, extracted underground metals, minerals, by promoting: 1. Development near existing transport systems; minimizing need for new road and highway construction B. Reduction of activities that encroach upon nature, by promoting : 1. Appropriate development and population growth policies linked to carrying capacity of natural systems and community facilities 2. Development patterns that respect natural systems such as watersheds and wildlife corridors. C. Meeting human needs fairly and efficiently, by promoting: 1. Fair and equitable growth management policies maintaining diversity in local populations and economies VIII. Floodplain Management Actions toward sustainability http://www. planning. org/policyguides/sustainabili ty .htm 10/1/2007 Policy Guides A. Reduction of activities that encroach upon nature, by: 1. Guiding development away from floodplains 2. Guiding development away from barrier beaches 3. Preserving or restoring wetland areas along rivers for natural flood control VIX. Watershed Planning/Management Actions toward sustainability A. Reduction of activities that encroach upon nature, such as: 1. Preservation and enhancement of water quality 2. Reduction in water use 3. Recharge of groundwater basins 4. Use of flood control and stormwater techniques that enhance and restore natural habitats 5. Prevention of wetlands destruction; restoration of degraded wetlands X. Resource Conservation Actions toward sustainability: A. Reduced dependence upon fossil fuels, extracted underground metals, and minerals, by: 1. Minimizing energy use 2. Encouraging the development of renewable energy sources 3. Discouraging the use of products that utilize packaging derived from non-renewable, non-degradable resources 4. Promoting the recycling of waste materials derived from non-renewable, non-degradable resources. 5. Developing community gardens that reduce the need for long-range transport of food and associated consumption of fossil fuels. B. Reduction of activities that encroach upon nature; for example, by : 1. Promoting the preservation and planting of trees and other vegetation that absorb carbon dioxide and air pollutants XI. Planning Processes/Education Actions toward sustainability: A. Support activities that reduce dependence upon fossil fuels, http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 19 of22 10/1/2007 Policy Guides extracted underground metals, and minerals; for example, by: l. Encouraging and enabling people to use transport other than gasoline-powered vehicles B. Support activities that reduce dependence upon chemicals and unnatural substances; for example, by: l. Educating citizens and public servants about both short- and long-term risks associated with the use and disposal of hazardous materials C. Support activities that reduce encroachment upon nature; for example, through: l. Educational efforts to reduce levels of consumption and waste generation at the household and community levels D. Support meeting human needs fairly and efficiently by: l. Integrally involving local community residents in setting the vision for and developing plans for their communities and regions 2. Establishing avenues for meaningful participation in decision-making for all citizens and in particular for historically disadvantaged people 3. Providing for equitable educational opportunities for all members of society 4. Promoting retraining of those displaced in the short-term by a shift to a more sustainable economy References The topics and material covered in this Policy Guide on Sustainability are germane to a range of additional policy guides developed by the American Planning Association, most notably Policy Summaries addressing: Role of Government and Growing Smart General/Comprehensive Planning Design and Historic Preservation Community Development Environmental Quality Housing Human Services Transportation American Planning Association, Summary of Planning Policies, Washington, DC. http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 20 of22 10/1/2007 Policy Guides Source Materials American Planning Association Agenda for America's Communities, Planning and Community Equity, Washington, DC, undated. Baugher, Eleanor and Leatha Lamison-White, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports P60-194, Poverty in the United States: 1995. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1996. Hempel, Lamont C.: Sustainable Communities: From Vision to Action, Claremont Graduate University, 1998. Hempel, Marilyn: Sustainable Communities: A Guide for Grassroots Activists, Population Press, Volume 4, No.5, undated. Krizek, Kevin and Joe Power: A Planners Guide to Sustainable Development, Planners Advisory Service Report No.467, American Planning Association, December, 1996. Local Government Commission: The Ahwahnee Principles, 1994. Lyle, John Tillman : Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1994. Rees, William, and Mathis Wackernagel: Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth, New Society Publishers, Philadelphia, 1996. Robert, Karl-Henrik, Herman Daly, Paul Hawken, and John Holmberg: A Compass for Sustainable Development, The Natural Step Newsletter, Winter, 1996. San Francisco, City and County of: Sustainability Plan for the City of San Francisco, October, 1996. Schlesinger, Michael; Andronova, Natalia; Mendelsohn, Robert; & Morrison, Wendy; Country-Specific Market Impacts of Climate Change, Paper presented at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Asia-Pacific Workshop on Integrated Assignment Models, held at the United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan. As cited in Science Bits Quarterly, Summer, 1997. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Steingraber, Sandra, Living Downstream, Vintage Books, New York, 1998. Urban Ecology, Inc., Blueprint for a Sustainable Bay Area, November, 1996. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Agenda 21 : Program of Action for Sustainable Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report, 1999. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: USEPA Web Page. Wackernagel, Mathis, interview, "Leaving Smaller Footprints", The Natural http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm Page 21 of 22 10/1/2007 Policy Guides Step Newsletter, Fall, 1998, and revised footprint estimates, 1999. World Conservation Union et al.: Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living, Glad, Switzerland, 1991 Page 22 of22 Contact Us Privacy Statement Sitemap FAQ En Espanol Copyright 2007 APA All Rights Reserved http://www.planning.org/policyguides/sustainability.htm 10/1/2007 Publi c Act 095-0325 SB0135 Enrolled AN ACT concerning State government . LRB095 05132 CMK 25203 b Be it enacted by the People of the State of Illinois, represented in the General Assembly: Section 1 . Short titl e . This Act may be cited as the Green Neighborhood Grant Act . Section 5 . Eligibility. A private development is eligible for a Green Neighborhood Award Grant if the private devel opment : (1) achieves certification under nationally recognized and accepted Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design for Neighborhood Development ("LEED-ND ") green building and sensible growth guidelines , standards, or systems; and (2 ) is selected under Secti on 10 by the Department of Comme r ce and Economic Opportunity . Section 10 . Grant proposals. By Decemb er 31 , 2008 , and each Decemb er 31 t h ereafter, the Department of Commerce and Economic Opportunity may, subject to appropriation , issue a request for proposals from model private developments that have been designated by the U.S . Green Building Co uncil , t he Congress for the New Urbanism, and the National Resources Defense Council as achieving LEED-ND certification . Subject to approp riation, the Department may offer no more t h an 3 Green Neighborhood Award Public Act 095-0325 SB0135 Enrolled LRB095 05132 CMK 25203 b Grants for the reimbursement of up to 1 .5 % of the total development cost of the selected projects . No more than one of the 3 eligible Green Neighborhood Award Grants may be set aside for an applicant from a municipality with a residential population greater than 1 ,000 ,000 . Section 15 . Implementing rules . The Department of Commerce and Economic Opportunity shall have the authority to adopt rul es to implement this Act . Section 99 . Effective date . This Act takes effect upon becoming law . 28 Planning May 2002 Eco-cities-the Next Swedish Export Acro1's-th<·-hoard sustainahility i'° a way of lifp for a /!rowing numher of Sw(•(kn·;; eiliC'~ and towns. Ulllea, a city of 100,000 in northeast Sweden, recent! plant that is fueled entirely by the COllllllUnity's ---m1ss1ons are minimized by a state-of-the-art filtration system. The plant has reduced the city's fossil fuel use by 80 to 90 percent. U mea is one of 60 Swedish cities and towns-20 percent of the total number-that have adopted a four-point "Natural Step" sus- tainability framework to guide their develop- ment. All of them, ranging from villages of300 people to cities of over 100,000, are members of a national association of eco-municipalities that is dedicated to promoting ecologically, socially, and economically sustainable practices on the local and national levels. The same Natural Step framework, increas- ingly used around the world to guide the process of changing to sustainable practices, is the basis for AP A's policy guide to sustainabili ty, which was adopted in April 2000. The framework is the result of several years of discussions in the Swedish scientific and medical communities about ways of meeting human needs without destroying the earth in the process. Adoption of the framework, coupled with a commitment to a "bottom- up" implementation process, qualifies a city or town to become a member of the national eco-municipalities association. The rcsu It;; Since the mid-l 980s, towns such as Overtor- nea (pop. 5,500), in northern Sweden, have replaced oil-fired boilers in municipal power plants with furnaces fueled by biomass-wood chips or pellets that usually are byproducts of the local lumber industry. Falkenberg (pop. 40,000), on Sweden's west coast, has created a windmill park, whose 10 turbines generate enough electricity to heat and light over 600 homes. Citizens pay a onetime fee to join a municipal cooperative and receive wind-powered electricity for half the market price. Eskilstuna (pop. 90,000), in the south- central part of the country, built a "nontoxic" elementary school for 500 children, using only natural materials-no plastics or synthetics. The school has reported a marked improvement in the health of teachers and administrators (and presumably students) in the one-and-a- half years since initial occupancy. The nearby town ofKarlstad uses "life cycle analysis" as a development review standard to encourage private development of ecologically sound housing. Increasingly used to bring about "greener" development, life cycle analysis tracks the flow of materials and energy used in the building process. Crcen hu;.iness Some communities are offering financing and technical assistance incentives to encourage businesses to adopt sustainability principles. Varmland County in western Sweden has developed a Greenmarket initiative, which certifies businesses that offer environmentally benign products. The county assists participat- ing companies with marketing and product redesign. In addition, the county has produced a green purchasing manual for the 16 municipalities within its jurisdiction; the manual includes information about sources of products that are chemical-free, have high recycled content, require less energy to fabricate, or are biode- gradable. County staff members coordinate joint procurement for the 16 jurisdictions and offer courses in green purchasing and energy efficiency. Umea, a university town and regional employment center, is the site of a most un- In the GreenZone: A McD011tt!di· with n sod roof sustainab!y harvested wood siding, and permeable surface parking lot; and a car wash that uses clraned and ft"lte1·ed stomuvater to wash en.rs. The writing on the door of a car owned by the Falkenberg energy department says in Swedish, ''This car runs on wind rnergy. " usual enterprise, an eco-park, or "GreenZone." The four buildings on the site, including a McDonald's restaurant, a Ford dealership, and a Statoil gas station, are constructed of wood that is locally harvested from certified sustainably managed fo rests. All the buildings have sod roofs, cutting stormwater drainage requirements in half. Bolts and screws rather than nails were used in construction, enabling easy disassembly and future reuse. Air is filtered by terrariums scattered through the buildings. The development, which is not part of the city's storm water drainage or sewer systems, has reduced energy consumption by70 percent and freshwater use by 90 percent. Rainwater that is not absorbed by the sod roofs or permeable paving is collected, cleaned by a state-of-the-art filtration system, and used at the carwash. The project was originated by the Ford dealership. Its owner, Ola Borgernas, notes that all four businesses worked closely with city officials in the eco-park's planning and review process. "We hope the project will serve ro inspire other building proprietors to launch projects toward an ecologically sustainable society," wrote Stina Fahlgren, an architect in Umea's planning department, in a recent publication about the GreenZone. Hurn I comcbal'k Twenty years ago, Overtornea, in the remote rural north, was struggling with a declining population and an unemployment rate of over 40 percent. Changes began in the mid-1980s, when town plannerTorbjorn Lahti initiated a participatory community revitalization process. Today, Overtornea is Sweden's first official "eco-municipality." During this process, citizens came to a better understanding of their own inner and outer resources. Gradually, says Lahti, local attitudes changed from "I can't" to "we can." Since then, lo- cal citizens have formed some 200 eco-businesses. They include an organic food service for schools and the elderly, industries producing smoked salmon and honey, and a sheep cooperative. Growing numbers of farms converted to organic agriculture, and some 40 farmers joined together to package thei r own products. The municipal government developed an "ecological school," integrating environmental learning into the curriculum. A local day care center did the same. For its part, the town of Overtornea con- verted its five heating plants from oil to wood burners, and, over several years, replaced its gas-powered car and bus fleet with alternatively fueled vehicles, and made all public transporta- tion within the town free, increasing ridership by 500 percent. Bottom-up One key to the eco-municipalities' success is thei r democratic, "bottom-up" approach to reorienting ci ties and towns toward sustain- able practices. Torbjorn Lahti, Overtornea's 29 town planner in the early 1980s and now the sustainable development project leader for the city ofRobercsfors, has played a key role in this process. Among other things, he helped form the national eco-municipalities association, to provide mutual support and resources, as well as to promote change at the national level. "Citizen participation is very important," says Lahti. "We try to work with the range of citizen interests in a community-business in- terests, neighborhoods, youth, farmers-to get them to speak the same sustainable language. It takes at least five years to accomplish widespread structural changes toward sustainability in a municipality," he says. The experience of these Swedish cities, including their emphasis on citizen involve- ment, makes them a good model for cities and towns in the U.S . So does the Swedish cities' use of a framework of overarching sustain- ability principles. It is true that Swedish municipalities ben- efit from far greater national encouragement to shift to sustainable practices than do U.S. communities. The Swedish government has set national environmental goals, made grants and financing available for sustainable development, and encouraged municipalities to adopt and use Agenda 21 , the guide for local sustainable development that emerged from the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. At the same time, Swedish cities and towns resemble U.S. cities and towns in an important respect-a strong home rule tradition. The national government may set the goals for sustainability, but it's up to local governments to adopt and implement them. If they can do it, so can we. Sarah James is a planning consultant based in Cam- bridge, Massachuseccs, and Meredith, New Hampshire. She is a coauthor of APA's Policy Guide on Planning for Sustainability. Sustainability sites. Sarah James visited Sweden's eco-cities on a rour sponsored by a nonprofit group cal led Susrainable Sweden, Inc. The next tour is scheduled for August; informarion at \'l'WW.esam.se. For more abour the Natural Step organizarion, see www.naru- ralstep.org. Contact James at 617-576-1745 or sjamesassoc@compuserve.com. APA.APA's policy guide on planning for sustain- ability is available on rhe web ar WW\v.planning. org/policyguides. Interview. For the author's complete interview with Torbjorn Lalui, sec the Planning section of the APA website. RMLUI ROCKY MOUNTAIN LAN[) USE INSTITUT E RMLUI has launched a "Sustainable Community Development Code Reform"prqject. This initiative seeks to bring sustainability to the forefront as a land use issue and understand how local governments can support sustainable communities through innovative land use codes. Support for this endeavor is being provided l!J Clarion Associates and other leaders in sustainable development. SUST Al NAB LE DEVELOPMENT CODES meet the needs of the present while ensuring future generations have the same or better opportunities as we do. Project Objectives: • Identify key sustainability issues and find ways to address them in the land use regulatory process through new standards, incentives, and the elimination of barriers. • Analyze how current approaches to zoning, such as performance and form-based systems, must evolve in order to promote sustainable communities. • Explore the nexus between sustainable land use planning and regulation, drawing upon examples from progressive communities that have adopted sustainable land use provisions. • Develop and Implement model sustainable zoning code provisions. • Educate end-users, including local officials, developers, citizens, and professionals in order to foster awareness of how communities move towards sustainability. • Act as a catalyst to bring various disciplines together -from agriculture, health, design, planning, etc. to form a coalition to support and promote sustainable development codes. On Our Horizon v We are current/y writing several articles on kry issues associated with sustainable development codes, which will be published during 2006. v We are planning a Colorado Sustainable Land Use Code Summit in the spring of 200 7 and a national summit at a later date to be determined. These forums 1vill invite leaders of various fields to help us steer our initiatives forward. CONTACT: James Van Hemert I RMLUI I rmluifallaw.du.edu w 0 0 u r-z w ~ a.. 0 _J w > w 0 >-r -z ~ ~ ~ 0 u w _J co <( z -<( r- (/) ~ (/) Chris Duerksen I Clarion Associates I cduerksen@clarionassociates.com March 2006 SUSTAINAB LE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT CODES THE NEXT WAVE IN LAND USE REGULATIONS Presented By: . Christopher Duerksen Molly Mowery 303-830-2890 RMLUI ROCKY MOUNTAIN LAND USE INSTITUTE ZONING: EVOLVE OR R.l.P. Sustainable Community Development Code PUD ,. What is a Sustainable Commun ity ? · "Then I say the earth belongs to each generation during its course, fully and in its own right, [but] no generation can contract debts greater than can be paid during the course of its own existence." -Thomas Jefferson (1789) Sustainable Communities ... • ... meet the needs of the present while ensuring that future generations have the same or better opportunities. • ... integrate and balance economic, environmental, and social goals. ---.. How Can a Development Code Support Sustainability? • Development codes CAN help address critical issues: ~~ Health Safety Energy Needs Food Supply Natural Resource Protection Community Character Civic Engagement Housing Choices -Mobility Waste Recycling Climate How Can a Development Code Support Sustainability? • Development codes are a powerful tool for local governments to accomplish community goals. • Timely because federal government deferring to local governments in many spheres. --.... How Does A Sustainable Code Compare to Other Types of Codes? How Does A Sustainable Code Compare to Other Types of Codes?? PUD Zoning (1960s) Prevalent form of zoning in fast-growing communities • Uses and standards negotiated • Incorporates flexibility but may have uncertain outcomes • Creation of multiple mini-zoning codes • Administered by city manager, lawyers, planners • Examples: -Franklin, TN -Louisville, CO How Does A Sustainable Code Compare to Other Types of Codes?? How Does A Sustainable Code Compare to Other Types of Codes?? SMARTCODE \ ( '"l•Jlt 111 '~l•t ,,, .. ,, 4, I.. \11 ~· "" Oi. t "I Cu(bing Sprawl Development With A Code ftt'MoWril'iirir n-.rt-.lM4.C....... o.-J...-·.-w...-...._ --,_.,..-_ .. _ .. _...., ..... ..,. -----i.-,-., ........_..._\•·--· .. _ .. _____ _ ._...,.. ____ "-__ ~J...-.,..6.......... _____ .. ,4...- ~._,,_ .. ....,_....~ .... __ .. ~...l·~ ,,.__~--~ __ .,.,,......._ ..... _ ......... ..,...._,..._ ..... _..,.,,"' __ .. _....,. ~ ............ _......., ..... ~~ ..... ,...._. ............. -__ ..,. ___ . .... _ ...... ......__ _ .. ...._ ................ __ _._.....,_ 1'-.U--....-o1oo1--"""-~~-...-. • .,.. _____ ... 4_"00 ~------'-.....,_ ..... __ .. .._, ....... -~-~..... _...~ .. -'-~ _.....,...._, .............. ~ "-·-""'--..~ -........ _,... __ -.......... ~.-. ............. ""'"""'. . T""" ___ .....,.._.,_ • .., ~ ...... -.......... ~-_ ..... _...,..,..., .,.1 ~.:.:::: .. _, . ._.-..~ ~-~::"=::: !:-:;-.::--...;7;:...M.:.-:.. -._,,... •••••••• ~ ... n., .... -...-.:..--... _,.... ............. htl ... ••11.ftoJ ,._.._11... ... _.;. ... ....,.-i ""'""-lo.lo..""--• ....... ......... _..n.o,,jl_..,.,... ~-............... '"'ill: .... --...et~..W. _ ___._ ___ -.... ........._l<_ -i.....--... _._. ' lo.&! __......_~_, ___ -'--4-' -• --. How Does A Sustai nable Code Compare to Other Types of Codes?? KEY FEATURES OF A SUSTAINABLE CODE? • Broader range of topics (Health, Energy, Safety, Choice+ Design, Environment) . ·r-.)~~ . • Focus on integration of natural and man-\ ~-*~-· made systems " · ;·, • Draws on useful features of other code types (design, procedures, etc.) • Tailored regionally to climate and ecology • Administered by planners, engineers, resource professionals, Leedites ~ -.. Sustainable Code: Energy Conservation • Solar orientation and access Sustainable Code: · Energy Production •Wind power . • Alternative Fuels Sustainable Code: Natura l Re sources and the Environment • Water Quality/Conservation -Green infrastructure storm water management Green roofs Roof catchment with sloping driveway, trench drain and underground storage. Sustainable Code: Conserve Resources and the Environment • Local agriculture production -Urban agriculture opportunities -Rural agricultural/ forest land protection zones -Community gardens and open space Sustainable Code: Health • Healthy living options -Walkable, bikeable communities -Stress relief--recreation and access to open space and public lands Sustainable Co de: Safety & Security • Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design; lighting stds. • Safe School Routes Sustainable Code: Hazard Safety • Floodplain regulations and wetlands protection • Wildfire mitigation • Steep slope regulations Sustainable Code: Ot her Issues • Mobility • Waste recycling • Housing and Lifestyle Options . -"" " I like my neighborhood because iny friends all live here and it is green" Scott Morton -l 0 yrs Sustainable Communities: Leaders • Chicago, IL •Aspen, CO • Portland, OR ... "' ... ..,..,,,,,'" • Davis, CA • Boulder, CO • Seattle, WA . · • Vancouver, BC Sustainable People: Rooftop garden on car -"'I' Sustainable People: Environmental steward . -"' Sustainable Code : Economic Benefits • Wide range of opportunities for jobs, entrepreneurial activities • High Quality of Life =Attract High Quality Job • Efficient development review • Allow for changing uses and incorporating new technology (cell towers, wireless communication infrastructure, wind turbines) S USTA IN ABLE COMMU NITIES BEGIN W ITH SUSTAINABLE DEVE LOPMENT CODES The Rocky Mountain Land Use Institute 2006 www.law.du.edu/rmlui THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LAND USE INSTITUTE SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT CODE REFORM INITIATIVE MEETING NOTES OF JUNE 28, 2006 CITY AND COUNTY OF DENVER, WEBB BUILDING PRESENT: Erin Goff, Colorado Municipal League Corina Lindley, Kaiser Permanente Joe Hanke, Denver Regional Council of Governments Zoe Selzer, Alliance for Sustainable Colorado Joan Brucha, Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment Ashleigh Quillen, Alliance for Sustainable Colorado Carol Maclennan, Tri-County Health Ellyn Johnson, Enterprise Community Partners Jenny Buddenburg, Colorado Preservation Ken Snyder, Orton Family Foundation Deirdre Oss, City of Denver Community Development & Planning Tyler Gibbs, City of Denver Community Development & Planning Cameron Gloss, City of Fort Collins Community Development & Planning Molly Mowry, Clarion Associates Chris Duerksen, Clarion Associates WELCOME & INTRODUCTIONS PRESENTATION James van Hemert, Executive Director of RMLUI, described the goal of this initiative as bringing sustainability to the forefront as a land use issue and to understand how local governments can support sustainable communities through innovative land use codes. Specific project objectives were outlined. RMLUI seeks to make the project broadly inclusive through multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral participation. Chris Duerksen, RMLUI Chairman of the Board, provided a detailed overview covering the evolution of zoning, definition of sustainable communities and the features of a development code. He urged all meeting attendees to consider how this initiative can also serve to further the agendas of their organizations. DISCUSSION MEETING NOTES OF JUNE 28, 2006 CONTINUED (PAGE Two) Who else should participate? • Representative of the Green Building industry-Amy Jeron?-Colorado office • Civil engineers • Include "nay sayers" • Transportation planners • Developers and home builders-e.g. McStain • Invite representatives from Salazar and Allard 's staff (info loop) • Department of Energy • Farmer's Union • Emergency preparedness • More municipalities • Energy Outreach?-Mary Edmonds • Neighborhood Reinvestment • Region 8 office • Form alliance with Congress for New Urbanism, USGB Council • Fastracks • COOT Organizational model? Reminder that we need an implementable product. Consider a pilot community to participate (note: if pursued, should be a later phase). Lowry Bomb Site (owned by Colorado Land Board) was mentioned as a possible pilot. Discussed medium term commitment of 6-12 meetings for a core group, leading to a two day Colorado summit in the spring of 2007. Substantive matters will be addressed immediately. Energy is a possible first topic. RMLUI will communicate to all concerning next steps. RMLUI ROCKY MOUNTAIN LAND lJSE [NSTITUTE AGENDA Wednesday, March 28, 1 :30-3:30 pm The Alliance Center, 1536 Wynkoop Street, Denver Sustainable Community Development Code Framework for Discussion on Transport and Mobility I. Welcome and introductions 2. Transportation Modes (1:30-2:30) a. Presentation by Jeremy Klop, Associate, Fehr & Peers (10-15 minutes) b. Dialogue on regulatory barriers, incentives, and standards to maximize mode choice. Focus on public transit, complete streets, and parking (if time) 3. The Health Connection to Mobility (2:30-3:30) a. Presentation by Dr. Richard Jackson, formerly the Director of the National Center for Environmental Health at the CDC and Chief Public Health Officer for the State of California and the current Director of Environmental Health Sciences at UC Berkeley b. Dialogue on regulatory barriers, incentives, and standards with respect to increased pedestrian and bicycling activity. 4. Adjourn Discussion guide next page. 1of3 1 Transport and mobility A wide range of energy efficient, safe and easily accessible transportation options must be available to all citizens in a manner that maximizes choice, fosters pedestrian activity, and is fiscally responsible over the long term. 2 of3 Essential components (1) Mode choice and availability (transit) (a) Adopt minimum public transportation standards for proximity and frequency of service (e.g. all departure and destination points within 15 minute walk of 15 minute service frequency) (b) Minimum standards for bus stop facilities and shelters (c) Supportive density and mix of uses (planning and standards-covered elsewhere) (2) Pedestrian orientation (a) Establish standards to maximize pedestrian orientation for streets and neighborhoods (sidewalks, trails and connections, supportive street furniture, neighborhood connectivity, shade trees, traffic calming, street parking, etc.) (3) Establish "complete street" standards with appropriate accommodation for all modes as contextually appropriate: pedestrian, bicycle, transit (bus, trolley, etc.), and automobile (a) Planning and design for complete streets and a comprehensive, integrated system ( 4) Establish comprehensive bicycle facility standards (a) Bike friendly streets (bicycle detection at traffic signals, eliminate unnecessary laws that restrict bicycles, wide curb lanes on arterial roadways, bicycle friendly features for bridges/underpasses, pavement repair reporting system, adequate street cleaning practices for cyclists, appropriate catch basin grate standards and replacement) (b) Bikeway network (i) Integrated city and regional planning for routes and separated paths with seamless neighborhood connections (planning) (c) Transit (i) Bike racks on buses (program), transit station access (development standards) (d) Parking (i) Street bicycle stands (program) 2 (ii) Minimum required standards for all new development (5) Accessibility (a) Adopt and enforce universal street and walkway design standards to safely accommodate the elderly, handicapped persons and children (b) Safe routes to schools and other public facilities (6) Automobile parking (brief discussion, if time) Minimize the negative impact of automobile parking through the use of maximum (including zero) permitted spaces, shared facilities, and design mitigation. Let the market decide (gasp!!) parking needed in dense, transit oriented, mixed use areas. The following topics fit under "Transport and Mobility" but will not be addressed in this meeting: (7) Freight movement (a) Adopt standards for rail, highway, and shipping facilities and terminals Selected Background Reading: The Pedestrian Charter (bill of rights, eh!) http://www. toronto. ca/pedestrianlpd(!charter.pd( Fast description of Complete Streets (thank you Wikipedia!) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete streets Introduction to Dr. Richard Jackson http://www.metropolismag.com/cda/story.php?artid=2353 3 of3 3 A/CONF.151 /26 (Vol. I) REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON E... Page 1of 5 United Nations A/CONF.151126 (Vol. I) General Assembly Distr. GENERAL 12 August 1992 ORIGINAL: ENGLIS H REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVI RONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT* (Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992) Annex I RIO DECLARATION ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Having met' at Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 , Reaffirming the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm on 16 June 1972, a / and seeking to build upon it, With the goal of establishing a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among States , key sectors of societies and people, Working towards international agreements which respect the interests of all and protect the integrity of the global environmental and developmental system, Recognizing the integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, our home , Proclaims t hat: Principle 1 Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustai nable development. They are enti t l ed to a healthy and productive l i fe in harmony with nature. Principle 2 States have , in accordance with t h e Charter of the United Nations and the prin ciples of i nternati onal law, t h e sovereign right t o exploit their own htto://www.un.org/ documents/ ga/ con fl 51 Iaconfl5126-1 annex l .htm 10/1/2007 NCONF.151 /26 (Vol. I) REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ONE... Page 2 of5 resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. Principle 3 The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations. Principle 4 In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it. Principle 5 All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world. Principle 6 The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the least developed and those most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given special priority. International actions in the field of environment and development should also address the interests and needs of all countries. Principle 7 States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. In view of the d i fferent contributions to global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities . The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command. Principle 8 To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies. Principle 9 States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity-building for sustainable development by improving scientific understanding t hrough exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge, and by enhancing the development, adaptation, diffusion and transfer of technologies , including new and innovative technologies. http://www. un. org/ documents/ gal con fl 51 Iaconfl 5126-1 annex l .htm 10/1/2007 .. It A/CONF.151 /26 (Vol. I) REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON E... Page 3of5 Principle 10 Environmental issues are b est hand led with the participa tion of all con cerned c itizens, a t the relevant l evel . At t he national l evel , each indiv idua l shall have appr opr iate acces s to information concer ning t h e envi ronment that is h e ld by public au t horiti es, incl uding information on hazardous materi als and acti vities in their communiti es, and the opportunity to participate i n deci s i on-making processes . States s ha l l facilitate and encourage publ ic awareness and participation by making information widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redr ess and remedy, shall be provided . Principl e 11 States s ha ll enact effective environmental legisl ati on. Environmental standards, management obj ectives and priorities should r e f lect the environmental and developmental context to which they apply. Standards applied by some countries may be inappropri ate and of unwarranted economic and social cost to other countries, in particular developing countries . Principle 12 States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international economic system that would lead to economic growth and sustainable development in all countries, to better address the problems of environmental degradation. Trade policy measures for environmental purposes shoul d not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade. Unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing country should be avoided. Environmental measures addressing transboundary or global environmental problems should, as far as possible, be based on an international consensus. Principle 13 States s ha l l develop national l aw regarding liabil ity and compensation for t h e victims of pollu tion and oth er environmental damage . States shall also cooperate in an expeditious and more determi ned manner to develop further international law regarding liabili ty and compensation for adverse effects of environmental damage caused by activities within their jurisdiction or control to areas beyond their jurisdiction . Pri ncipl e 14 States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the relocation and transfer to other States of any activi ties and substances that cause severe environmental degradation or are found to be harmful to human heal th. Principle 15 In order t o protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be wid e l y appli ed by States according to their capabiliti es . Wher e there are threats of serious or i rreversi ble damage, lack of ful l scienti fic certainty httn· /In n.mu 11n nra/r1nr 11m P.nt<1/a::i/r.()nfl "1 /::ir.()nfl "1 ?.6-1 ::inn ex 1 .hhn 10/1 /2007 NCONF.151/26 (Vol. I) REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ONE... Page 4of5 shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. Principle 16 National authorities should endeavour to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment. Principle 17 Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument , shall be undertaken f or proposed activities that are likely t o have a significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority. Principle 18 States shall immediately notify other States of any natural disasters or other emergencies that are likely to produce sudden harmful effects on the environment of those States. Every effort shall be made by the international community to help States so afflicted. Principle 19 States shall provide prior and timely notificati on and relevant information to potentially affected States on activities that may have a significant adverse transboundary environmental effect and shall consult with those States at an early stage and in good faith. Principle 20 Women have a vital role in environmental management and development . Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve sustainable development. Principle 21 The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the world should be mobilized to forge a global partnership in order to achieve s ustainable development and ensure a better future for all . Principle 22 Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities have a vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices . States should recognize and duly support their identity, culture and interests and enable thei r effective participation in the achievement of sustainabl e development. Principle 23 http://www.un.org/documents/ gal confl 51 /aconfl5126-1annex1.htm 10/1/2007 A/CONF.151 /26 (Vol. I) REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ONE... Page 5of5 The environment and natural resources of people under oppression, domination and occupati on shall be protected. Principle 24 Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development. States shall therefore respect international law providing protection for the environment in times of armed confli ct and cooperate in its further development, as necessary. Principle 25 Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indivisible. Principle 26 States shall resolve all their environmental disputes peacefully and by appropriate means in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. Principle 27 States and people shall cooperate in good faith and in a spirit of partnership in the fulfilment of the principles embodied in this Declaration and in the further development of international law in the field of sustainable development. * * * * * a / Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5-16 June 1972 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E .73.II.A.14 and corrigendum), chap. I. This document has been posted online by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA). Reproduction and dissemination of the document -in electronic and/or printed format -is encouraged, provided acknowledgement is made of the role of the United Nations in making it available. Date last updated: 12 January, 2000 by DESAIDSD Copyright © 1999 United Nations htto://www.un.onddocumentshrn/confl 51/aconfl 5126-1:mnP.x1 htrn 1 {\ /1 ,,, A£V""f NCO NF .151/26 (Vol. III) Forest Principles Page 1of6 United Nations A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. III) General Assembly Distr. GENERA 14 August 199: ORIGINAL: ENGLISJ REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992) Annex III NON-LEGALLY BINDING AUTHORITATIVE STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES FOR A GLOBAL CONSENSUS ON THE MANAGEMENT, CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ALL TYPES OF FORESTS PREAMBLE (a) The subject of forests is related to the entire range of environmental and devel opment issues and opportunities, including the right to socio-economic development on a sustainable basis. (b) The guiding objective of these principles is to contribute to the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests and to provi de for their mu l tiple and complementary functions and uses. (c) Forestry issues and opportunities should be examined in a holisti c and balanced manner within the overall context of environment and development, taking into consideration the multiple functions and uses of forests, incl uding traditional uses, and t h e l ikely economic and social stress when these uses are constrained or restricted, as well as the potential for development that sustainable forest management can offer. (d) These princi ples reflect a first global consensus on forests. In commi tting t h emselves to the prompt implementation o f t hese principles, countries also decide to keep them under assessment for their adequacy with regard to further international cooperation on forest issues . (e) These principles should apply to all types of forests, both natu ral and planted, in all geographical regi on s and c l imatic zones, including austral, boreal , subtemperate, temperate, sub tropical and tropical . (f) All types of forests embody compl ex and uni que ecological processes which are the basis for their present and potential capacity to provide resources to s a tisfy human needs as well as environmental values, and as such their sound management and conservati on is o f concern to the 1-.ttt...-//u mm1 im ora/clor.11mP.ntslP~/conf1 51 /aconfl5 l 26-3annex3 .htm 10/1/2007 NCONF.151/26 (Vol. III) Forest Principles Page 2of6 Governments of the countries to which they belong and are of value to local communities and to the environment as a whole . (g) Forests are essential to economic development and the maintenance of all forms of life. (h) Recognizing that the responsibility for forest management, conservation and sustainable development is in many States allocated among federal /national, state/provincial and local levels of government, each State, in accordance with its constitution and/or national legislation, should pursue these principles at the appropriate level of government . PRINCIPLES/ELEMENTS 1. (a) States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies and have the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdi ction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. (b) The agreed full incremental cost of achieving benefits associated with forest conservation and sustainable development requires increased international cooperation and should be equitably shared by the international community. 2. (a) States have the sovereign and inalienable right to utilize, manage and develop their forests in accordance with their development needs and level of socio-economic development and on the basis of national policies consistent with sustainable development and legislation, including the conversion of such areas for other uses within the overall socio-economic development plan and based on rational land-use policies. (b) Forest resources and forest lands should be sustainably managed to meet the social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and future generations. These needs are for forest products and services, such as wood and wood products, water, food, fodder , medicine, fuel, shelter, employment, recreation, habitats for wildlife, landscape diversity, carbon sinks and reservoirs, and for other forest products. Appropriate measures should be taken to protect forests against harmful effects of pollution, including air-borne pollution, fires, pests and diseases, in order to maintain their full multiple value. (c) The provision of timely, reliable and accurate information on forests and forest ecosystems is essential for public understanding and informed decision-making and should be ensured. (d) Governments should promote and provide opportunities for the participation of interested parties, including local communiti es and indigenous people, industries, l abour, non-governmental organizations and individuals, forest dwellers and women, in the development, implementation and planning of national forest policies . 3. (a) National policies and strategies should provide a framework for increased efforts, including the development and strengthening of institutions and programmes for the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests and forest lands. (b) International institutional arrangements, building on those organizations and mechanisms already in existence, as appropri ate, should http://www.un.org/documents/ga/confl 51 /aconfl5126-3annex3.htm 10/1 /?007 NCONF.151126 (Vol. III) Forest Principles Page 3of6 facilitate international cooperation in the field of forests. (c) All aspects of environmental protection and social and economic development as they relate to forests and forest lands should be integrated and comprehensive. 4. The vital role of all types of forests in maintaining the ecological processes and balance at the local, national, regional and global levels through, inter alia, their role in protecting fragile ecosystems, watersheds and freshwater resources and as rich storehouses of biodiversity and biological resources and sources of genetic material for biotechnology products, as well as photosynthesis, should be recognized. 5. (a) National forest policies should recognize and duly support the identity, culture and t he rights of indigenous people, their communities and other communities and forest dwellers . Appropriate conditions should be promoted for these groups to enable them to have an economic stake in forest use, perform economic activities, and achieve and maintain cultural identity and social organization, as well as adequate levels of livelihood and well-being, through, inter alia, those land tenure arrangements which serve as incentives for the sustainable management of forests. (b) The full participation of women in all aspects of the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests should be actively promoted. 6. (a) All types of forests play an important role in meeting energy requirements t hrough the provision of a renewable source of bio-energy, particularly in developing countries, and the demands for fuelwood for household and industrial needs should be met through sustainable forest management, afforestation and reforestation. To this end, the potential contribution of plantations of both indigenous and introduced species for the provision of both fuel and industrial wood should be recognized. (b) National policies and programmes should take into account the relationship, where it exists, between the conservation, management and sustainable development of forests and all aspects related to the production, consumption, recycling and/or final disposal of forest products. (c) Decisions taken on the management , conservati on and sustainable development of forest resources should benefit , to the extent practicable, from a comprehensive assessment of economic and non-economic values of forest goods and services and of the environmental costs and benefits. The development and improvement of methodologies for such evaluations should be promoted. (d) The role of planted forests and permanent agricultural crops as sustainable and environmentally sound sources of renewable energy and industrial raw material should be recognized, enhanced and promoted. Their contribution to the maintenance of ecological processes, to offsetting pressure on primary/old-growth forest and to providing regional employment and development with the adequate involvement of local inhabitants should be recognized and enhanced. (e) Natural forests also constitute a source of goods and services, and their conservation, sustainable management and use should be promoted. 7. (a) Efforts should be made to promote a supportive international economic climate conduci ve to sustained and environmentally sound development of forests in all countries, which include, inter alia, the promotion of httn· //v.ro.rw nn mo/ilnr.11me:nt!';/o-~/r.nnfl .S 1 /aeonfl.S1 26-~ann ex3 .htm 10/1/2007 NCO NF .151/26 (Vol. III) Forest Principles Page 4of6 sustainable patterns of production and consumption , the eradication of poverty and the promotion of food security. (b) Specific financial resources should be provided to developing countries with significant forest areas which establish programmes for the conservation of forests including protected natural forest areas. These resources should be directed notably to economic sectors which would stimulate economic and social substitution activities . 8. (a) Efforts should be undertaken towards the greening of the world. All countries, notably developed countries, should take positive and transparent action towards reforestation, afforestation and forest conservation, as appropriate . (b) Efforts to maintain and increase forest cover and forest productivity should be undertaken in ecologically, economicall y and socially sound ways through the rehabilitation , reforestation and re-establishment of trees and forests on unproductive, degraded and deforested lands, as well as through the management of existing forest resources . (c) The implementation of national policies and programmes aimed at forest management, conservation and sustainabl e development, particularly in developing countries, should be supported by inte rnational financial and technical cooperation, including through the private sector, where appropriate . (d) Sustainable forest management and use should be carried out i accordan ce with national development policies and priorities and on the basis of environmentally sound national guidelines. In the formulation of such guidelines, account should be taken, as appropriate and if applicable, of relevant internationally agreed methodologies and criteria. (e) Forest management should be integrated with management of adjacent areas so as to maintain ecological balance and sustainable productivity. (f) National policies and/or legislation aimed at management, conservation and sustainable development of forests should include the protection of ecologically viable representative or unique examples of forests, including primary/old-growth forests, cultural, spiritual, historical, religious and other unique and valued forests of national importance. (g) Access to biological resources, including genetic material, shall be with due regard to the sovereign rights of the countries where the forests are located and to the sharing on mutually agreed terms of technology and pro fits from biotechnol ogy products that are derived from these resources. (h) National policies should ensure that environmental impact assessments should be carried out where actions are likely to have significant adverse impacts on important forest resources, and where such actions are subject to a decision of a competent national authority. 9. (a) The efforts of developing countries to strengthen the management, conservation and sustainable development of their forest resources shoul d be supported by the international community, taking into account the importance of redressing external indebtedness, particularly where aggravated by the net transfer of resources to developed countri es , as well as the problem of achieving at least the replacement value of forests through improved market access for forest products, especially processed products. In this respect, special attention should also be given to the countries undergoing the process http://www. un. org/ documents/ gal confl 51 Iaconfl5126-3 annex3 .htm 10/1/2007 NCONF.151/26 (Vol. III) Forest Principles Page 5of6 of transition to market economies. (b) The problems that hinder efforts to attain t h e conservation and sustainable u s e of forest resources and that stem from t he lack of alternative options available to local communiti es, in particular t he urban poor and poor rural populati ons who are economically and socially dependent on forests and forest resources, should be addressed by Governments and the international community. (c) National pol icy formul ati on with respect to all types of forests should take account of the pressures and demands imposed on forest ecosystems and resources from influencing factors outside the forest sector, and intersectoral means of dealing wi th these pressures and demands should be sought. 10. New and additional financial resources should be provided to developing countries to enable t hem to sustainably manage, conserve and develop their forest resources, including through afforestation, reforestation and combating deforestation and forest and land degradation. 11 . I n order to enable , in particular, developing countries to enhance their endogenous capacity and to better manage, conserve and develop their forest resources, the access to and transfer of environmentally sound technologies and corresponding know-how on favourable terms, includi ng on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed, in accordance with the relevant provisions of Agenda 21 , should be promoted, facilitated and financed, as appropriate. 12. (a) Scientific research, forest inventories and assessments carried out by national institutions which take into account, where relevant, biological, physical, social and economic variables, as well as technological development and its application in the field of sustainable forest management, conservation and development, should be strengthened through effective modalities, including international cooperation. In this context, attention shoul d also be given to research and development of sustainably harvested non-wood products. (b) National and, where appropriate, regional and international institutional capabilities in education, training, science, technology, economics, anthropology and social aspects of forests and forest management are essential to the conservation and sustainable development of forests and should be strengthened. (c) International exchange of information on the results of forest and forest management research and development should be enhanced and broadened, as appropriate, making full use of education and traini ng institutions, including those in the private sector. (d) Appropriate indigenous capacity and local knowledge regarding the conservation and sustainable development of forests should, through institutional and financial support and in collaboration with the people in the local communities concerned, be recognized, respected, recorded, developed and, as appropriate, introdu ced in the implementation of programmes. Benefits arising from the utilization of indigenous knowledge should therefore be equitably shared with such people. 13. (a) Trade in forest products should be based on non-discriminatory and multilaterally agreed rules and procedures consistent with international trade law and practices. In this context, open and free international trade in forest products should be facilitated . httn://www.un.om:/documentsl!rn/confl 51 /aconfl 5 l 26-3annex3.htm 1 0/1 /2007 NCONF.151 /26 (Vol. III) Forest Principles Page 6of6 (b) Reduction or removal of tariff barriers and impediments to the provision of better market access and better prices for higher value-added forest products and their local processin g s h ould b e encouraged to enabl e p roducer countries to better conserve and manage t h eir renewable forest r esources. (c) Incorpora tion of environmental costs and benefits i nto market forces and mechanisms, in order to achieve forest conservation and sustainable development, should be encouraged both domestically and internationally. (d) Forest con servation and sustai nable devel opment policies shoul d be integrated with economic, trade and other relevant policies . (e) Fiscal, trade, industrial , transportation and other policies and practices that may lead to forest degradation should be avoided. Adequate policies, a i med at management, conservati on and sustainable development of forests, i ncluding, where appropriate, incentives, should be encouraged. 14 . Unilateral measur es , incompatible with intern ational obligations or agreements , to restrict and/or ban international trade in timber or other forest products shoul d be removed or avoided, in order to attain long-term sustainable forest management. 1 5. Pollutants, particularly air-borne pollutants, including those responsible for acidi c deposition, that are harmful to the health of forest ecosystems at the local, national, regional and global levels should be controlled. END OF DOCUMENT This document has been posted online by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA). Reproduction and dissemination of the document -in electronic and/or printed format -is encouraged, provided acknowledgement is made of the role of the United Nations in making it available. Date last updated: 14 January, 2000 by DESAIDSD Copyright © 1999 United Nations http://www.un.org/ documents/ gal con fl 51 I aconfl 5126-3 annex3 .htm 10/1/2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Program ... Page 1 of 52 United Nations A/RES/S-19/2 General Assembly Distr. GENERAL 19 September 1997 ORIGINAL: ENGLISH Nineteenth special session Agenda item 8 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY [without reference to a Main Committee (A /S-19 /29)) S/19-2. Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21 The General Assembl y Adopts the Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21 annexed to t he present resolution. 11th plenary meeting 28 June 1997 ANNEX Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21 Adopted by the General Assembl y at its nineteenth special session (23-28 June 1997) CONTENTS Paragraphs I. STATEMENT OF COMMITMENT ............................. . 1 -6 II. ASSESSMENT OF PROGRESS MADE SINCE THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT ........... . 7 -21 III. IMPLEMENTATION OF AGENDA 21 IN AREAS REQUIRING URGENT ACTION ........................................... · · · · 22 -115 A. Integration of economic, social and environmental littn · //umrm 11n nra/rlnr.11mP.nts/a::i/rP.s/snP.r.l::ire:s~ 1 9-2.htm 10/1 /2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Program ... Page 2 of 52 objectives ...................................... . B. Sectors and issues .............................. . C. Means of implementation ......................... . I V. INTERNATIONAL I NSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS ............ . A. Greater coherence in various intergovernmental organizations and processes ..................... . B . Rol e of relevant organizations and insti tuti ons of the United Nations system .................... . C. Future role and programme of work of the Commission on Sustainable Development ........... . D. Methods of work of the Commission on Sustainable Development ..................................... . Appendix . Multi-year programme of work for the Commission on Sustainable Development, 1998-2002 I. STATEMENT OF COMMITMENT 23 -32 33 -75 76 -115 116 -137 117 -121 122 -129 130 -132 133 -137 1. At the nineteenth special session of the United Nations General Assembly, we -heads of State or Government and other heads of delegations , together with our partners from international institutions and non-governmental organizations -have gathered to review progress achieved over the five years that h ave passed since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and to re-energize our commitment to further action on goals and objectives set out by the Earth Summit . 2. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development was a landmark event. At that Conference, we launched a new global partnership for sustainable development -a partnership that respects the indivisibility of environmental protection and the development process. It is founded on a global consensus and political commitment at the highest level. Agenda 21, 1 / adopted at Rio de Janeiro, addresses the pressing environment and development problems of today and also aims at preparing the world for the challenges of the next century in order to attain the long-term goals of sustainable development. 3. Our focus at this special session has been to accelerate the implementation of Agenda 21 in a comprehensive manner and not to renegotiate its provisions or to be selective in its implementation. We reaffirm that Agenda 21 remains the fundamental programme of action for achieving sustainable development. We reaffirm all the principles contained in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 2 / and the Forest Principles. 3 / We are convinced that the achievement of sustainable development requires the i ntegration of its economic, environmental and social components . We recommit to working together -in the spirit of global partnership -to reinforce our joint efforts to meet equitably the needs of present and future generations . 4 . We acknowledge that a number of positive results have been achieved, but we are deeply concerned that the overall trends with http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1/2007 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Program ... Page 3 of 52 respect to sustainable development are worse today than they were in 1992. We emphasize that the implementation of Agenda 21 in a comprehensive manner remains vitally important and is more urgent now than ever. 5. Time is of the essence in meeting the challenges of sustainable development as set out in the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21. To this end, we recommit ourselves to the global partnership established at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and to the continuous dialogue and action inspired by the need to achieve a more efficient and equitable world economy, as a means to provide a supportive international climate for achieving environment and development goals. We therefore, pledge to continue to work together, in good faith and in the spirit of partnership, to accelerate the implementation of Agenda 21. We invite everyone throughout the world to join us in our common cause. 6. We commit ourselves to ensuri ng that the next comprehensive review of Agenda 21 in the year 2002 demonstrates greater measurable progress in achieving sustainable development. The present Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21 is our vehicle for achieving that goal. We commit ourselves to fully implementing this Programme. II. ASSESSMENT OF PROGRESS MADE SINCE THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT 4/, 5/ 7. The five years that have elapsed since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development have been characterized by the accelerated globalization of interactions among countries in the areas of world trade, foreign direct investment and capital markets. Globalization presents new opportunities and challenges . It is important that national and international environmental and social policies be implemented and strengthened in order to ensure that globalization trends have a positive impact on sustainable development, especially in developing countries. The impact of recent trends i n globalization on developing countries has been uneven. A limited number of developing countries have been able to take advantage of those trends, attracting large inflows of external private capital and experiencing significant export-led growth and acceleration of growth in per capita gross domestic product. Many other countries, however, in particular African countries and the least developed countries, have shown slow or negative growth and continue to be marginalized . As a result, they generally experi enced stagnating or falling per capita gross domestic product through 1995. In these and in some other developing countries, the problems of poverty, low levels of social development, inadequate infrastructure and lack of capital have prevented them from benefiting from globalization. While continuing their efforts to achieve sustainable development and to attract new investments, these countries still require international assistance in their efforts directed towards sustainable development. In particular the least developed countries continue to be heavily dependent on a declining volume of official development assistance for the capacity-building and infrastructure development required to provide for basic needs and more effective participation in the globalizing world economy . In an increasingly interdependent world economy, the responsible conduct of monetary and other macroeconomic policies requires that their potential impact on other countries be taken into account. Since the Conference, the countries with economies in transition have achieved significant httn· //wurw 11n oro/nor.11mP.nts/i:r11/res/snec/aress 19-2.htm 1011 /2007 NRES/S-1 9/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Program ... Page 4 of 52 progress in implementing the principles of sustainable development . However, t he need for full integration of these countries into the world economy remains one of the cruci a l problems on their way towards s ustainable development. The international community should continue t o s upport these countries in their efforts to accel erate the t ransition to a market economy and to achieve sustai nable development. 8. Although economic growth -reinforced by globalization -has allowed some countries to reduce the proportion of people in poverty, for others marginalization has i ncreased . Too many countries have seen economic conditions worsen and public services deteriorate; the total number of people in the world living in povert y has increased. Income inequ ality has i ncreased among countries and also within them, unemployment has worsened in many countries, and t he gap between the least developed countries and other countries has grown rapidly in recent years. On a more positive note, population growth rates have been declining globally, largely as a result of expanded basic education and health care. That trend is projected to lead to a stable world population in the middle of the twenty-first century. There has also been progress in social services, with expanding access to education, declini ng infant mortali ty and i ncreasing life expectancy in most countries. However, many people, particularly in the least developed countries, still do not have access to adequate food and basic social services or to clean water and sanitation. Reducing current inequities in the distributi on of wealth and access to resources, both within and among countries, is one of the most serious challenges facing humankind. 9. Fiv e years after the United Nations Conference on Env ironment and Development, the state of the global env ironment has continued to deteriorate, as noted in the Global Environment Outlook 6/ of the United Nations Environment Programme, and significan t environmental problems remain deeply embedded in the socio-economic fabric of countries in all regions. Some progress has been made in terms of i nstitutional development, international consensus-building, public participation and pri vate sector actions and, as a result, a number of countries have succeeded in curbing pollution and slowing the rate of resource degradation. Overall, however, trends are worsening. Many polluting emissions, n otably of toxic substances, greenhouse gases and waste volumes are continuing to increase although in some industrialized countries emissions are decreasing. Marginal progress has been made in addressing unsustainable production and consumption patterns . Insufficient progress has a l so been identified in the field of environmentally sound management and adequate control of transboundary movements of hazardous and radioactive wastes. Many countries undergoing rapid economic growth and urbanization are also experiencing increasing levels of air and water pol lution, with accumulating impacts on human health. Acid rain an d transboundary air pollution, once considered a problem only in the industrialized countries, are increasingly becoming a probl em in many devel oping regions . In many poorer regions of the world, persistent poverty is contributing to accelerated degradation of natural resources and desertification has spread. In countries seriously affected by d rought and/or desertification, especially those in Africa, t h eir agricultural productivity, among other things, is uncertain and continues to decline, thereby hampering their eff orts to achieve sus tai nable development . Inadequate and unsaf e water supplies are affecting an increasing number of people worldwide, aggravating problems of ill health and food insecurity among t h e poor. Conditions in natural habitats and fragile ecosystems, including mountain http://www.un.org/ documents/ ga/res/ spec/ aress 19-2.htm 10/1/2007 A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Pro gram ... Page 5 of 52 ecosystems, a r e sti ll deteriorating in all regions of the world , resul ting in dimin i shing b i o l ogical d i versi ty. At the gl obal l evel, renewabl e resou rces, i n particular fresh wate r , forests, topsoil a nd marine fish stocks , con t inue to b e u sed at r ates beyond the ir viable rates of regeneration; wi thout improved management, t his situati on is clearl y unsustainable. 10. While there has been progress in material and energy effici ency, parti cu larly wi th ref e r ence to non-renewable resources , overall trends remain unsustai nabl e. As a resul t, i nc r easing l evels of pol lution threaten to exceed the capacity of the global environment to absorb them, increasi ng the potential obstacles to economic and social devel opment i n developi ng countries. 11 . Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Devel opment, extensive e f forts have been made by Governments and international organizations to integrate environmental, economi c and social objectives into decision-making by elaborating new polici es and strategies for sustainable devel opment or by adapting existing poli c i es and plans. As many as one hundred and fifty countries have responded to t h e commi tments established at t he Conference through national-level commissi ons or coordinating mechanisms designed to develop an integrated approach to sustainable development. 12. The major groups h ave demonstrated what can be achieved by taking committed action, sharing resources and building consensus , reflecting grass-roots concern and involvement . The efforts of l ocal authorities are making Agenda 21 and the pursuit of sustainable development a reali ty at the local level through the implementation of "local Agenda 2ls " and other sustainable development programmes. Non-governmental organizations, educational institutions, the scientific community and the media have increased public awareness and discussion of the relations between environment and development in all countries. The invol vement , role and responsibil i ties of business and industry, including transnational corporations, are i mportant . Hundreds of small and large businesses have made "green business" a new operating mode. Workers and trade unions have established partnerships with empl oyers and communities to encourage sustai nable development in the workpl ace. Farmer-led initiati ves have resulted in improved agricultural practices contributing to sound resource management. Indi genous people have p l ayed an increasing role in addressing issues affecting their interests and particularly concerning their traditional knowledge and practices. Young people and women around the world have played a prominent role in gal vanizing communities into recogn izing t heir responsibilities to future generations. Nevertheless, more opportunities should be created for women to participate effectively in economic, social and politi cal development as equal partn ers in all sectors o f the economy. 13. Among t h e achievements since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development have been the entry into force of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , 7 / the Conven tion on Biological Diversity 8/ and t h e United Nations Convention to Combat Deserti fication in those Countri es Experi encing Serious Drough t and/or Deser tificat ion , parti cul arly in Afri ca; 9/ the conclusion of the Agreement on t h e I mplementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddl ing Fi sh Stocks and Hi ghly Mi gratory Fish Stocks; 10/ t he adoption of the Programme of Action for the Sustainabl e Development of httn://www.un .orn/documents/f!.a/res/soec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1/2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Program ... Page 6 of 52 Small Island Developing States; 11/ the elaboration of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities; 12 / and the entry into force of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. 13/ Implementation of these important commitments and of others adopted before the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development by all the parties to them, remains however, to be carried out, and in many cases further strengthening of their provisions is required as well as the mechanisms for putting them into effect. The establishment, restructuring, funding and replenishment of the Global Environment Facility were a major achievement. However, its levels of funding and replenishment have not been sufficient fully to meet its objectives . 14. Progress has been made in incorporating the principles contained in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development -including the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, which embodies the important concept of and basis for international partnership; the precautionary principle; the polluter pays principle; and the environmental impact assessment principle -in a variety of international and national legal instruments. While some progress has been made in implementing United Nations Conference on Environment and Development commitments through a variety of international legal instruments, much remains to be done to embody the Rio principles more firmly in law and practice. 15. A number of major United Nations conferences have advanced international commitment for the achievement of long-term goals and objectives directed towards sustainable development. 16. Organizations and programmes of the United Nations system have played an important role in the progress made in the implementation of Agenda 21. The Commission on Sustainable Development was established to review progress achieved in the implementation of Agenda 21 , advance global dialogue and foster partnerships for sustainable development. The Commi ssion has catalysed new action and commitments and has contributed to the deliberations on sustainable development among a wide variety of partners within and outside the United Nations system. Although much remains to be done, progress has also been made at the national, regional and international levels in implementing the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development Forest Principles, including through the Commission's Ad Hoc Intergovernmental Panel on Forests. 17. Provision of adequate an d predictable financial resources and the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries are critical elements for the implementation of Agenda 21. However, while some progress has been made, much remains to be done to activate the means of implementation set out in Agenda 21, in particular in the areas of finance and technology transfer, technical assistance and capacity-building. 18. Most developed countries have still not reached the United Nations target, reaffirmed by most countries at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, of committing 0.7 per cent of their gross national product to official development assistance or the United Nations target, as agreed, of committing 0.15 per cent of gross national product as official development assistance to the least developed countries. Regrettably, on average, official development assistance as a percentage of the gross national product of developed countries has drastically decl ined in the post-Conference period, from http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aressl9-2.htm 10/1/2007 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Program ... Page 7 of 52 0.34 per cent in 1992 to 0.27 per cent in 1995, but official development assistance has taken more account of the need for an integrated approach to sustainable development. 19. In other areas, results have been encouraging since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. There has been a sizeable expansion of private flows of financial resources from developed to a limited number of developing countries and, in a number of countries, efforts have been made in support of domestic resource mobilization, including the increasing use of economic instruments to promote sustainable development. 20. In many developing countries, the debt situation remains a major constraint on achieving sustainable development . Although the debt situation of some middle-income countries has improved, there is a need to continue to address the debt problems of the heavily indebted poor countries, which continue to face unsustainable external debt burdens. The recent World Bank/International Monetary Fund Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative could help to address that issue with the cooperation of all creditor countries. Further efforts by the international community are still required to remove debt as an impediment to sustainable development. 21. Similarly, technology transfer and technology-related investment from public a nd private sources, which are particularly important to developing countries, have not been realized as outlined in Agenda 21. Although increased private flows have led to investmen ts in industry and technology in some developing countries and economies in transition, many other countries have been left behind. Conditions in some of these countries have been less attractive to private sector investment and technological change has been s l ower, thus limiting their ability to meet their commitments to Agenda 21 and other international agreements. The technology gap between developed countries and, in particular, the least developed countries has widened. III. IMPLEMENTATION OF AGENDA 21 IN AREAS REQUIRING URGENT ACTION 22. Agenda 21 and the principles contained in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development established a comprehensive approach to the achievement of sustainable development. While it is the primary responsibility of national Governments to achieve the economic, social and environmental objectives of Agenda 21 , it is essential that international cooperation be reactivated and intensified, recognizing, inter alia, the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities as set forth in Principle 7 of the Rio Declaration. This requires the mobilization of stronger political will and the invigoration of a genuine new global partnership, taking into account the special needs and priorities of developing countries. Such an approach remains as relevant and as urgently needed as ever. It is clear from the assessment above that, although progress has been made in some areas, a major new effort will be required to achieve the goals established at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, particularly in areas of cross-sectoral matters where implementation has yet to be achieved. The proposals set out in sections A to C below outline strategies for accelerating progress towards sustainable development. The sections are equally important and must be considered and implemented in a balanced and integrated way. l1ttn·//uro.rw nn on:r/cioc11ments/1:rn/res/snec/aressl 9-2.htm 10/1/2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Program ... Page 8 of 52 A. Integration of economic, social and environmental objectives 23. Economic development , social development and environmental protection are interdependent and mutually reinforcing components of sustainable development. Sustained economic growth is essential to the economic and social development of all countries, in particular developing countries. Through such growth, whi ch s hould be broadly based so as to benefit ,all people, countries will be able to improve the standards of living of their people through the eradication of poverty, hunger, disease and illiteracy and the provision of adequate shelter and secure employment for all, and the preservation of the integrity of the environment. Growth can foster development only if its benefits are ful l y shared. It must therefore a l so be guided by equity, justice and social and environmental considerations . Development, in turn, must involve measures that improve the human condition and the quality of life itself . Democracy, respect for all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development, transparent and accountable governance in all sectors of society, as well as effective participation by civil society, are also an essential part of the necessary foundations for the realization of social and people-centred sustainable development. 24. Sustainable development strategies are important mechani sms for enhancing and linking national capacity so as to bring together priorities in social, economic and environmental policies. Hence, special attention must be given to the fulfilment of commitments in the areas set out below, in the framework of an integrated approach towards development, consisting of mutually reinforcing measures to sustain economic growth , as well as to promote soci al development and environmental protection . Achieving sustainable development cannot be carried out without greater integration at all policy-making levels and at operational levels , including the lowest administrative levels possible. Economic sectors, such as industry, agriculture, energy, transport and tourism, must take responsibil i ty for the impact of their activities on human well-being and the physical environment. In the context of good governance, properly constructed strategies can enhance prospects for economic growth and employment and at the same time protect the environment. All sectors of society should be involved in their development and implementation, as follows: (a) By the year 2002, the formulation and elaboration of national strategies for sustainable development that reflect the contributions and responsibilities of all interested parties should be completed in all countries, with assistance provided, as appropriate, through international cooperation, taking into account the special needs of the least developed countries. The efforts of developing countries in effectively implementing national strategies should be supported. Countries that already have national strategies should continue their efforts to enhance and effectively i mplement them. Assessment of progress achieved and exchange of experience among Governments should be promoted. Local Agenda 21s and other local sustainable development programmes , including youth activities, should also be actively encouraged; (b) In i ntegrating economic, social and environmental objectives, it is important that a broad package of policy instruments, including regulation, economic instruments, internalization of environmental costs in market prices, environmental and social impact analysis , and http://www.un.org/ documents/ ga/res/ spec/ aress 19-2 .htin 10/1/2007 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Program ... Page 9 of 52 information d i ssemination, be worked out in the light of country-specific conditions to ensure that integrated approaches are effective and cost-efficient . To this end, a transparent and participatory process should be promoted. This will require the involvement of national legislative assemblies, as wel l as all actors of civil society, including youth and indigenous people and their communities, to complement the efforts of Governments for sustainable development. In particular, the empowerment and the full and equal participation of women in all spheres of society, including participation in the decision-making process, are central to all efforts to achieve such development; (c) The implementati on of policies aiming at sustainable development, including those contained in chapter 3 (Combating poverty) and in chapter 29 (Strengthening the role of workers and their trade unions) of Agenda 21, may enhance the opportunities for job creation, thus helping to achieve the fundamental goal of eradicating poverty. An enabling international economic climate 25. A mutually supportive balance between the international and the national environment is needed in the pursuit of sustainable development. As a result of globalization, external factors have become critical in determining the success or failure of developing countries in their national efforts. The gap between developed and developing countries points to the continued need for a dynamic and enabling international economic environment supportive of international cooperation, particularly in the fields of finance, technology transfer, debt and trade, if the momentum for global progress towards sustainable development is to be maintained and increased. 26. To foster a dynamic and enabling international economic environment favourable to all countries is in the interest of all countries. Moreover, issues, including environmental issues, that bear on the international economic environment can be approached effectively only through a constructive dialogue and genuine partnership on the basis of mutuality of interests and benefits, taking into account that, in view of the different contributions to global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities. Eradicating poverty 27. Given the severity of poverty, particularly in developing countries, the eradication of poverty is one of the fundamental goals of the international community and the entire United Nations system, as reflected in Commitment 2 of the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development , 14/ and is essential for sustainable development. Poverty eradication is thus an overriding theme of sustainable development for the coming years. The enormity and complexity of the poverty issue could very well endanger the social fabric, undermine economic development and the environment, and threaten political stability in many countries. To achieve poverty eradication, efforts of individual Governments and international cooperation and assistance should be brought together in a complementary way. Eradication of poverty depends on the full integration of people living in poverty into economic, social and political life. The empowerment of women is a critical factor for the eradi cation of poverty. Poli cies that littn· //www 11n nn:r/ilncumentsl!rn/res/snec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1 /2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 10 of 52 promote s uch integrati on to combat poverty, i n par t i cular policies for providing basic social services and broader socio-economic development, are effective as well since enhancing t he productive capacity of poor people increases both their wel l-being and t hat of their communities and societies, and facilitate s their parti c ipation i n resource conservation and environmental protec tion. The p r ovisi on of basic social servi ces and food security in an equitable way is a necessary condition for such integration and empowerment. The 20/20 initiative as referred to in t he Programme of Action of the Wo r ld Summit for Social Development 15/ is, among other things, a useful means for such integration . However, the five years since the Rio Conference have witnessed an increase in the number of people living in absolute poverty, particularly in developing countries. In this context, there is an urgent need for the timely and full implementation of all the relevant commitments, agreements and targets already agreed upon since the Rio Conference by the international community, including the United Nations system and international financial institutions . Full implementation of the Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development is essential. Priority actions include: (a) Improving access to sustainable livelihoods, entrepreneurial opportunities and productive r esources, including land, water, credit, technical and administrative training, and appropriate technology, with particular efforts to broaden the human and social capital basis of societies so as to reach the rural poor and the urban informal sector; (b) Providing universal access to basic social services, including basic education, health care, nutrition, clean water and sanitation; (c) Progressively developing, in accordance with the financial and administrative capacities of each society, social protection systems to support those who cannot support themselves, either temporarily or permanently; the aim of social integration is to create a "society for all"; (d) Empowering people living in poverty and t h eir organizations by involving them fully in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of strategies and programmes for poverty eradication and community development and by ensuring that these programmes reflect their priorities; (e) Addressing the disproportionate impact of poverty on women, in particular by removing legislative, policy, administrative and customary barriers to women's equal access to productive resources and services, including access to and control over land and other forms of property, credit, including micro-credit, inheritance, education, i nformation, health care and technology . In this regard, full implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action 16/is essential; (f) Working together of interested donors and recipients to allocate increased shares of official development assistance to poverty eradication . The 20/20 initiative is an imp ortant principle i n this respect, as it is based on a mutual commitment among donors and recipients to increasing resources allocated to basic socia l services; (g) Intensifying international cooperation to support mea sures http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1 /?007 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 11 of 52 being taken i n developing countri es to eradicate poverty, to provide basic social protection and services , and to approach poverty eradication efforts in an integral and multidimensional manner . Changing consumption and production patterns 28. Unsustainable patt erns of production and consumpt ion, parti cularly in the industrialized countries , are identified in Agenda 21 as the major cause of continued deterioration of the global environment. While unsustainable patterns in the industrialized countries continue to aggravate the threats to the environment , there remain huge difficulties for developing countries in meeting basic needs such as food, health care, shelter and education for people. All countries should strive to promote sustainable consumption patterns; developed countries should take the lead in achieving sustainable consumption patterns; developing countries should seek to achieve sustainable con sumption patterns in t heir development process, guaranteeing the provision of basic needs for the poor, while avoiding those unsustai nable patterns, particularly in industrialized countries, generally recognized as unduly hazardous to the environment, inefficient and wasteful , in their development processes. This requires enhanced technological and other assistance from industrialized countries. In the follow-up of the impl ementation of Agenda 21, the review of progress made in achieving sustainable consumption patterns should be given high priority. 17 / Consistent with Agenda 21, the development and further elaboration of national policies and strategies , particularly in industrialized countries, are needed to encourage changes in unsustainable consumption and production patterns, while strengthening, as appropriate, international approaches and policies that promote sustainable consumption patterns on the basis of the pri nciple of common but differentiated responsibilities, applying the polluter pays principle, and encouraging producer responsibility and greater consumer awareness. Eco-efficiency, cost internalization and product policies are also important tools for making consumption and production patterns more sustainable . Actions in this area should focus on: (a) Promoting measures to internalize environmental costs and benefits in t h e price of goods and services, while seeking to avoid potential negative effects for market access by developing countries, particularly with a view to encouraging the use of environmentally preferable products and commodities . Governments should consider shifting the burden of taxation onto unsustainable patterns of production and consumption; it is of vital importance to achieve such an internalization of environmental costs. Such tax reforms should include a socially responsible process of reduction and elimination of subsidies to environmentally harmful activities; (b) Promoting the role of business in shaping more sustainable patterns of consumption by encouraging, as appropriate, the voluntary publication of environmental and social assessments of its own activities, taking into account specific country conditions, and actions as an agent of change in the market, and actions in its role as a major consumer of goods and services; (c) Developing core indicators to monitor critical trends in consumption and production patterns, with industrialized countries taking the lead; (d) Identify ing best practices through evaluations of policy 10/1 /2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra ... Page 12 of52 measures with respect to their environmental effectiveness, efficiency and implications for social equity, and disseminating such evaluations; (e) Taking into account the linkages between urbanization and the environmental and developmental effects of consumption and production patterns in cities, thus promoting more sustainable patterns of urbani zati on; (f) Promoting international and national programmes for energy and material efficiency with t imetables for their implementation, as appropriate. In this regard, attention should be given to studies that propose to improve the efficiency of resource use, including consideration of a 10-fold improvement in resource productivity in industrialized countri es in the long term and a possible factor-four increase in industrialized countries in the next two or three decades. Further research is required to study the feasibility of these goals and the practical measures needed for their implementation . Industriali zed countries will have a special responsibility and must take the l ead in this respect. The Commission on Sustainabl e Development should consider this initiative in the coming years in exploring policies and measures necessary to implement eco-efficiency and, for this purpose, encourage the relevant bodies to adopt measures aimed at assisting developing countries in improving energy and material efficiency through the promotion of their endogenous capacity-building and economic development with enhanced and effective international support; (g) Encouraging Governments to take the lead in changing consumption patterns by improving their own environmental performance with action-oriented policies and goals on procurement, the management of public facilities and the further integration of environmental concerns into national policy-making. Governments in developed countries, in particular, should take the lead in this regard; (h) Encouraging the media, advertising and marketing sectors to h elp shape sustainable consumption patterns; (i) Improving the quality of information regarding the environmental impact of products and services and, to that end, encouraging the voluntary and transparent use of eco-labelling ; (j) Promoting measures favouring eco-efficiency; however, developed countries should pay special attention to the needs of developing countries, in particular by encouraging positive impacts, and to the need to avoid negative impacts on export opportunities and on market access for developing countries and, as appropriate , f or countries with economies in transition; (k) Encouragi ng the development and strengthening of educational programmes to promote sustainable consumption and production patterns; (1) Encouraging business and industry to develop and apply environmentally sound technology that should a i m not only at increasing competitiveness but also at reducing negative environmental i mpacts; (m) Giving balanced consideration to both the demand side and the supply side of the economy in matching environmental concerns and economic factors , which could encourage changes in the behaviour of http ://www.un.org/documents/ ga/res/spec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1 /?007 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 13 of 52 consumers and producers. A number of policy options should be examined; they include regulatory instruments, economic and social incentives and disincentives , facilities and infrastructure, information, education, and technology development and dissemination. Making trade and environment mutually supporti ve 29. In order to accelerate economic growth, p overty eradication and environmental protection, particularly in developing countries, there is a need to establish macroeconomic conditions in both developed and developing countries that favour the development of instruments and structures enabling a ll countries, in particular developing countries , t o benefit from globalization. International cooperation and support for capacity-building in trade, environment and development should be strengthened through renewed system-wide efforts, and with greater responsiveness to sustainabl e development objectives , by the United Nations, the World Trade Organization and the Bretton Woods institutions , as well as by national Governments. There should be a balanced and integrated approach to trade and sustainable development, based on a combination of trade liberalization, economic development and environmental protection. Trade obstacles should be removed with a view to contributing to t h e achieving of more effi c ient use of the earth 's natural resources in both economic and environmental terms . Trade liberalization should be accompanied by environmental and resource management policies in order to realize its full potential contribution to improved environmental protection and the promoti on of sustainable development through the more efficient allocation and use of resources. The multilateral trading system should have the capacity to further integrate environmental considerati ons and enhance its contribution to sustainable development, without undermining its open, equitable and non-discriminatory character . The special and differential treatment f or developing countries, especially the least developed countries , and the other commitments of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations 18/ should be fully implemented in order to enable those cou ntries to benefit from the international trading system, while conserving the environment. There is a need for continuing the eliminati on of discriminatory and protectionist practices in international trade relations , which will have the effect of improving access for the exports of developing countries. This will also facilitate the full integration o f economies in transition into the world economy. In order to make trade, environment and development mutually supportive, measures need to be taken to ensure transparency in the use of trade measures rel ated to the environment, and should address the root causes of environmental degradation so as not to result i n disguised barriers to trade . Account should be taken of the fact that environmental standards valid for developed countries may have unwarranted social and economic costs in other countries, in particular developing countries. International cooperation is needed and unilateralism should be avoided . The following acti ons are required: (a) There should b e timely and full implementation of the results of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations and full use of the Comprehensive and Integrated World Trade Organization Plan of Action for the Least Developed Countries; 19/ (b) An open, non-discriminatory, rule-based, equitable, secure, transparent and predictable multilateral trading system should be promoted. In this context , effecti ve measures are called for to achieve the complete integrati on of developing countries and countries l-.ttn·//nmmr nn nro/rlnr-11mPnt,./1rn/re:,./snec/aressl 9-2.htrn 10/1/2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra ... Page 14 of52 with economies in transition into the world economy and the new international trading s ystem . In this connection, there is a need to promote t he universality of t he World Trade Organization and t o facilitate the admission to membership in that organization, in a mutually benefic ial way , of developing countries and countries with economies in transition applying for membership. Actions should be taken to maximize the opportunities and to minimize the difficult i es of developing countries, including the net food-importing ones, especially the least developed countries, and of countries with economies in transition, in adjusting to the changes introduced by the Uruguay Round. Decisions on further liberalization of trade should take into account e ffects on sustainable development and should be consistent with an open, rule-based, non-discriminatory, equitable, secure and transparent multilateral trading system. The relationship between multilateral environmental agreements and the World Trade Organization rules should be clarified; (c) Implementation of environmental measures should not result in disguised barriers to trade; (d) Within the framework o f Agenda 21, trade rules and environmental principles should interact harmoniously; (e) Further analysis of t h e environmental effects of the international transport of goods i s warranted; (f) Cooperation and coordination between the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, the World Trade Organization, the United Nations Environment Programme a nd other relevant institutions should be strengthened on various issues, including (i) the role of positive measures in multilateral environmental agreements as part of a package of measures including, in certain cases, trade measures; (ii) the special conditions and needs of small and medium-sized enterprises in the trade and environment interface; (iii) trade a nd environment issues at the regional and subregional levels, including within the context of regional economic and trade as well as environmental agreements ; (g) Cooperation and coordination between the United Nati ons Conference on Trade and Development and other relevant bodies within their existing respective mandates should be enhanced , inter alia, on environment and sustainable devel opment issues. Without prejudice to the clear understanding in the World Trade Organization that future negotiations, if any, regarding a multilateral agreement on investment will take place only aft er an explici t consensus decision, future agreements on investments should take into account the objectives of sustainable development and, when developing countries are parties to these agreements, special attention should be given to their needs for investment; (h) National Governments should make every effort to ensure policy coordination on trade, envi ronment and development at the national l evel in support of sustainable development; (i) There is a need for the World Trade Organization, the United Nations Env ironment Programme and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development to consider ways to make trade and environment mutually supportive, includi ng through due respect f or the objectives and principles of the multilateral trading system and for the http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aressl9-2.htm 10/1 /?007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 15 of 52 provisions of multilateral environmental agreements. Such considerations should be consistent with an open, rule-based, non-di scriminatory, equitable, secure and transparent multilateral trading system. Population 30 . The impact of the relationshi p among economic growth, poverty, employment, environment and sustainable development has become a major concern. There is a need to recognize the criti cal linkages between demographic trends and factors and sustainable development . The current decline in population growth rates must be further promoted through national and international policies that promote economic development, social development, environmental protection, and poverty eradication, particularly the further expansion of basic education, with full and equal access for girls and women, and health care, including reproductive health care, including both family planning and sexual health, consistent with the report of the International Conference on Population and Development. 20 / Health 31. The goal s of sustainable development cannot be achieved when a h igh proportion of the population i s afflicted with debilitating illnesses. An overriding goal for the future is to implement the Health for All strategy 21/ and to enable all people, particularly the world's poor, to achieve a higher level of health and well-being, and to improve their economi c productivity and social potential. Protecting c hildren from environmental health threats and infectious disease is particularly urgent since children are more susceptible than adults to those threats . Top priority should be attached to supporting the efforts of countries, particularly developing countries, and international organizations to eradicate the major infectious diseases, especially malaria, which is on the increase, to improve and expand basic health and sanitation services , and to provide safe drinking water. It is also important to reduce indigenous cases of vaccine-preventable diseases through the promotion of widespread immunization programmes, promote accelerated research and vaccine development and reduce the transmission of other major infectious diseases, such as dengue fever, tuberculosi s and human immunodeficiency virus /acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Given the severe and irreversible h ealth effects of lead poisoning, particularly on children, it is important to accelerate the process of eliminating unsafe uses of lead, including the use of lead in gasoline worldwide, in light of country-specific conditions and with enhanced international support and assistance to developing countries, particularly through the timely provision of technical and financial assistance and the promotion of endogenous capacity-building. Strategies at the regional, national and local levels for reducing the potential risk due to ambient and indoor air pollution should be developed, bearing in mind their serious impacts on human health, including strategies to make parents, families and communities aware of the advers e environmental health impacts of tobacco. The c l ear linkage between health and the environment needs to be emphasized and the lack of information on the impact of environmental pollution on health should be addressed. Health issues should be fully integrated into national and subnational sustainable development plans and should be incorporated into project and programme development as a component of environmental impact assessments . Important to efforts at national level s is international cooperation in disease prevention, early 1-.~· //nmrrn 11n "rn-/r1""11mPnk/o;;i/no:s/snP.r./;;iress 19-2.htm 10/1 /?.007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 16 of 52 warning, su rvei llance, reporting, training a n d research, and treatment. Sustainable human settlements 32 . Sustai nable human settlements devel opment is essential to sustainabl e development. The need to intensify efforts and coopera tion to improve living conditions in the cities , towns , villages and rural areas throughout the world is recognized. Approximately half the world's population already lives in urban settlements, and by early in the next century the majority -more than 5 billion people - will be urban residents. Urban problems are concerns common to both developed and developing countries, a l though urban ization is occurring most rapid ly in developing countries . Urbanization creates both challenges and opportunities. Global urbanization is a cross-sectoral phenomenon that has an impact on all aspects of sustainabl e development. Urgent action is needed to implement fully the commitments made at the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) consistent with i ts report, 22 / and in Agenda 21. New and additional financial resources from various s ources are necessary to achieve the goal s of a dequate shelter for all and sustainable human settlements development in an urbanizing world. Transfer of expertise and technology, capacity-building, decentralization of authority through, inter alia, strengthening of local capacity and private-public partnerships to i mprove the provision and environmentally sound management of i nfrastructure and social services should be accelerated to achieve more sustainable human settlements development . Local Agenda 21 programmes sh ould also be actively encouraged. Global targets could be established by the Commission on Sustainable Development to promote local Agenda 21 campaigns and to deal with obstacles to local Agenda 21 initiatives. B. Sectors and issues 33 . The present section identifies a number of specific areas that are of widespread concern since fai lure to reverse current trends in these areas, notably in resource degradation, will have potentially disastrous effects on social and economic devel opment, on human health and on environmental protection for all countries, particularly developing countries . All sectors covered by Agend a 21 are equally important and thus deserve attention by the international community on an equal footing. The need for integration is i mportant in all sectors, including the areas of energy and transport because of the adverse effects that developments in those areas can have on human health and ecosystems ; the areas of agriculture and water use, where inadequate land-use planning, poor water management and inappropriate technology can result in the degradation of natural resources and human impoverishment and where drought and desertifi cation can result in land degradation and soil loss; and the area of management of marine resources, where competitive overexploitation can damage the resource base, food supplies and the livelihood of fishing communities , as well as the environment. The recommendations made in each of the sectors take into account the need for international cooperation in support of national efforts , within the context of the principles of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, including , inter a lia , the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. It is likewise understood t hat these recommendations do not in any way prejudice the work accomplished under legally binding conventions, where they exist , concerning these http ://www.un.org/do cuments/ga/res/spec/aressl9-2.htm 1 0/1 /?007 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 17 of 52 sectors . Fresh water 34. Water resources are essential for satisfying basic human needs, health and food production, and the preservation of ecosystems, as well as for economic and s oci al development in general. It is a matter of urgent concern that more than one fifth of all people still do not have access to safe drinking water and more t han one half of humanity lacks adequate sanitation. From the perspecti ve of developing coun tries, fresh water is a priority and a basic need, especially taking into account that in many developing countri es fresh water is not readily available for all segments of t he population, inter alia, owing to lack o f adequate infrastructure and capacity, water scarcity, and technical and financial constraints . Moreover, fresh water is also c rucial for developing countries in order to satisfy the basic needs of thei r population in the areas of agricultural irrigation, industri al development, hydroelectri c generation, and so forth. In view of the growing demands on wat er, which i s a finite resource, it will become a major limiting factor in s oci o-economic development unless early action is taken. There i s growin g concern regarding the inc reasing stress on water supplies caused by unsustainable use patterns, affecting b oth wat er quality and quantity, and the widespread lack of access to safe water supply and suitable sanitation in many developing countries. Because the commitments of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade of the 1 980s have not been fully met , there is still a need to ensure the optimal use and protection of all fresh-water resources, so that the needs of everyon e on this planet, including access to safe drinking water and sanitation, can be met. This call s for the highest priority to be given to the seri ous fresh-water problems fac ing many regions, especially in the developing world. There is an urgent need: (a) To assign high priority, in accordance with specific national needs and condi tions, to the formul ation and implementation of policies and programmes for integrated watershed management, including issues related to pollution and waste, the interrelationship between water and land, including mountains, forests, upstream and downstream users, estuarine environments, biodiversity and the preservation of aquatic ecosystems, wetlands, c limate and land degradation and desertification, recogni zing that subnational , national and regional approaches to fresh-water protection and consumption following a watershed basin or river basin approach offer a useful model for the protection of fresh-water supplies; (b) To strengthen regional and i nternati onal cooperation for technological transfer and the financing o f integrated water resources programmes and projects , in particul ar t h ose designed to increase access to safe water s upply and sanitation; (c) To ensure the continued participati on of local communities, and women in particular, in the management of water r esources development and use ; (d) To provide an enabling national and i n ternati onal environment that encourages investments from public and private sources to improve water supply and sanitation servi ces, especially in fast growing urban and peri-urban areas, as well as in poor rural communities in devel oping countries; and for the international community to adopt and implement commi tments to support the efforts to assist developing 1 ()/1 /")()()/ AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 18 of 52 countries in achieving access to safe drinking water and sanitation f or all; (e) To recognize water as a social and economic good with a vital role in the satisfaction of basi c human needs, food security, poverty alleviation and the protection of ecosystems . Economic valuation of water should be seen within the context of its social and economic implications, reflecting the importance of meeting basic needs. Consideration should be given to the gradual implementation of pricing policies that are geared towards cost recovery and the equit able and efficient allocation of water, including the promotion of water conservati on, in developed countries; such policies could also be con sidered in developing countries when they reach an appropriate stage in their development, so as to promote the harmonious management and development of scarce water resources and generate financial resources f or investment in new water supply and treatment facilities. Such strategies should also include programmes assigned to minimize wasteful consumption of water; (f) To strengthen the capability of Governments and international institutions to collect and manage information, including scientific, social and environmental data, in order to facilitate the integrated assessment and management of water resources, and foster regional and international cooperati on for information dissemination and exchange through cooperative approaches among United Nations institutions, including the United Nations Environment Programme, and centres for environmental excellence . In this regard, technical assistance to developing countries will continue t o be important; (g) For the inte rnational community to give support to the efforts of developing countries, with their limited resources, to shift to higher-value , less water-intensive modes of agricultural and industrial production and to develop the educational and informational infrastructure necessary to improve the skills of the labour force requi red for the economic transformation that needs to take place if use of fresh-water resources is to be sustainable. International support for the integrated devel opment of water resources in developing countries, and appropriate innovative initiatives and approaches at the bilateral and regi onal levels are also required; (h) To encourage waterco urse States to develop international watercourses with a view to attaining sustainable utilization and appropriate protection thereof and benefits therefrom, taking into account the interests of the watercourse States concerned. 35. Considering the urgent need for action in the field of fresh water , and building on existing principles and instruments, arrangements , programmes of action and customary uses of water, Governments call for a dialogue under the aegis of the Commission on Sustainable Development, beginning at its sixth session, aimed at building a consensus on the necessary actions, and in particular , on the means of implementation and on tangible results , in order to c onsider initiating a strategic approach for the implementation of all aspects of the sustainable use of fresh water for social and economic purposes, including, inter alia, safe drinking water and sanitation, water for irrigation, recycling, and waste-water management , and the important role fresh water plays in natural ecosystems. This intergovernmental process will be f ully fruitful only if there is a proved commitment by the international community to the provisi on of new and additional financial resources f or the goals of this http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 1 (\/1 /')(\(\'7 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 19 of 52 initiative. Oceans and seas 36 . Progress has been achieved since the United Nations Conference on Environment a nd Development in the negotiation of agreements and voluntary instruments for improving the conservation and management of fishery resources and for the protection of the marine environment . Furthermore, progress has been made in the conservation and management of specific fishery stocks for the purpose of securing the sustainable utilization of these resources. Despite this, the decline of many fish stocks, high levels of discards, and rising marine pollution continue . Governments should take full advantage of t he challenge and opportunity presented by the International Year of the Ocean in 1998. There is a need to continue to improve decision-making at the national, regional and global levels. To address the need for improving global decision-making on the marine environment, there is an urgent need for Governments to implement decision 4/15 of the Commission on Sustainable Development, 23 / in which the Commission, inter alia, called for a periodic intergovernmental review by the Commission of all aspects of the marine environment and its related issues, as described in chapter 17 of Agenda 21, and for which the overall legal framework was provided by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. There is a need for concerted action by all countries and for improved cooperation to assist devel oping countries in implementing the relevant agreements and instruments in order that they may participate effectively in the sustainable use, conservation and management of their fishery resources, as provided for in the Convention and other international legal instruments, and achieve integrated coastal zone management. In that context, there is an urgent need for: (a) All Governments to ratify or to accede to the relevant agreements as soon as possible and to implement effectively such agreements as well as relevant voluntary instruments; (b) All Governments to implement General Assembly resolution 51 /189 of 16 December 1996, including the strengthening of institutional links to be established between the relevant intergovernmental mechanisms involved in the development and implementation of integrated coastal zone management . Following progress on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and bearing in mind Principle 13 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, there is a need to strengthen the implementation of existing international and regional agreements on marine pollution, with a view in particular to ensuring better contingency planning, response, and liability and compensation mechanisms; (c) Better identification of priorities for action at the global level to promote the conservation and sustainable use of the marine environment, as well as better means for integrating such action; (d) Further international cooperation to support the strengthening, where needed, of regional and subregional agreements for the protection and sustainable use of the oceans and seas; (e) Governments to prevent or eliminate overfishing and excess fishing capacity through the adoption of management measures and mechanisms to ensure the sustainable management and utilization of fishery resources and to undertake programmes of work to achieve the \..~. //nnrnu 11n nr n/rlf""lf'lltYIPntsfo::i/rP.s/sn ec/areSS 19-2.htrn 10/1/2007 A/RES/S-19/2 RE SOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 20 of 52 reduction and elimination of wasteful fishing practices, wherever they may occur , especially in relation to large-scale industrialized fishing. The emphasis given by the Commission on Sustainable Development at its fourth session to the importance of effective conservation and management of fish stocks, and in particular to eliminating overfishing, in order to identify speci fic steps at national or regional levels to prevent or eliminate excess fis hing capacity, will need t o be carried forward in all appropriate international forums including, in particular, the Committee on Fisheries of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; (f) Governments to consider the positive and negative impact of subsi dies on the conservation and management of fish eries t hrough national, regional and appropriate international organizations and, based on these analyses, to consider appropriate action; (g) Governments to take actions, individually and through their participation in competent global and regional forums, to improve the quality and quantity of scientific data as a basis for effective decisions related to t he protection of t h e marine environment and the conservation and management of marine living resources; in this regard, greater international cooperation is required to assist developing countries, in particular small island developing States, to operationalize data networks and clearing houses for information-sharing on oceans. In this context, particular emphasis must be placed on the collection of biological and other fisheries-related information and the resources for its collation , analysis and dissemination. Forests 37. The management , conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests are a crucial factor in economic and social development, in environmental protection and in the planet's l ife- support system. Forests are one of the major reservoirs of biological diversity; they act as carbon sinks and reservoirs ; and they are a significant source of renewable energy, particularly in the least developed countries. Forests are an integral part of sustainable development and are essential to many indigenous people and other forest-dependent peopl e practising traditional lifestyles, forest owners and local communities, many of whom possess important traditional forest-related knowledge. 38. Since the adoption of the Forest Principles at the Rio Conference, tangible progress has been made in sustainable forest management at the national, subregional, regional and international levels and in the promotion of international cooperation on forests. The proposals for action contained in the report of the Ad Hoc Intergovernmental Panel on Forests on its fourth session, 24/ which were endorsed by the Commission on Sustainable Development at its fifth session, 25/ represent significant progress and consensus on a wide range of forest issues. 39. To maintain the momentum generated by the Intergovernment al Panel process and to facilitate and encourage the holistic, integrated and balanced intergovernmental policy dialogue on all types of forests in the future, which continues to be an open, transparent and partici patory process, requires a long-term political commitment to sustainable f orest management worldwide. Against this background, http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 1 (1 /1 /')()()'7 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 21 of 52 there is an urgent need for: (a) Countries and international organizations and institutions to impl ement the proposals for action agreed by the Intergovernmental Panel , in an expediti ous and effective manner, and in collaborati on and through effective partnershi p wi th all i n terested parties , including major groups, in particul ar indigen ous peopl e and local communities; (b) Countries to develop national forest programmes in accordance with their respec tive national conditions, objectives and priorities; (c) Enhanced international cooperation to i mplement the Intergovernmental Panel's proposals for acti on directed towards the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests, incl uding provision for financial resources, capacity-buil ding, research and the transfer of technol ogy; (d) Further clarification o f all issues arising from the programme elements of the Intergovernmental Panel process; (e) International institutions and organi zations to continue their work and to undertake further coordination and explore means for collaboration in the informal, high-level Inter-agency Task Force on Forests, focusing on the implementati on of the Intergovernmental Panel's proposal s for action, in accordance with their respective mandates and comparative advantage; (f) Countries to provide consistent guidance to the governing bodies of relevant i nternational institutions and instr uments with respect to taking effici ent and effective measures, as well as to coordinating their forest-related work at a ll levels, i n respect of incorporating the Intergovernmenta l Panel 's proposals f or action into their work programmes and under existing agreements and arrangements . 40. To help achieve this, it is decided to continue the intergovernmental policy dialogue on forests through the establishment of an ad hoc open-ended Intergovernmental Forum on Forests under the aegis of the Commission on Sustainable Devel opment to work in an open, transparent and participatory manner , with a focus ed and time-limited mandate, and charged with, inter alia : (a) Promoting and f acilitating t h e implementation of the Intergovernmental Panel's proposals for action; (b) Reviewing, monitoring and reporting on progress in the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests; (c) Consider ing matters l eft pending as regards the programme elements of the Intergovernmental Panel , in particular trade and environment in relation to forest products and services, transfer of technology and the need for financial resources . The Forum shou ld also identify t he possible elements of and work towards consensus on international arrangements and mechanisms, for example, a legally binding instrument. The Forum will report on its work to the Commission on Sustainable Development in 1999 . Based on that report , and depending on the decision of the Commission at its eigh th session, the Forum will engage in further action on h++n·//u mmr 11 n "ro/rl"f'11rn Pnts/cr::ilrF:s/snf':c/::iress19-2.htrn 10/1 /2007 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 22 of 52 establishing an inter governmental negotiation process on new arrangements and mechanisms or a legally binding instrument on all types of forests. 41 . The Forum should convene as soon as possible to further elaborate i ts terms of reference and decide on organizationa l matters . It s hould be serviced by a small secretariat within t he Department for Policy Coordination a n d Sustainable Development of t he United Nations Secretariat supported by voluntary extrabudgetary contributions from Governments and international organizations. Energy 42. Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved quality of life. However , sustainable patterns of production, distribution and use of energy are crucial . Fossil fuels (coal , oil and natural gas) will continue to dominate the energy supply situation for many years to come in most developed and developing countries. What is required then is to reduce the environmental impact of their continued development, and to reduce l ocal heal th hazards and environmental pollution t hrough enhanced international cooperation, notably in the provision of concessional finance for capacity development and transfer of the relevant technology, and through appropriate national action. 43. In developing countries, sharp increases in energy servi ces are required to improve the standard of living of their growing populations . The increase in the level of energy services would have a beneficial impact on poverty eradication by increasing employment opportunities and improving transportation, health and education. Many developing countries , in particular the least developed, face the urgent need to provide adequate modern energy services, especially t o billions of people in rural areas. This requires significant financial, human and technical resources and a broad-based mix of energy sources. 44. The objectives envisaged in this section should reflect the need for equity, adequate energy supplies and increasing energy consumption in developi ng countries and should take into account the situation of countries that are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing and export, and/or consumpti on, of fossil fuels and that have serious difficulties in switching to alternative sources of energy, and the situation of countries highly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. 45. Advances towards sustainable energy use are taking place and all parties can benefit from progress made in other countries. It is also necessary to ensure international cooperation for promoting energy conservation and improvement of energy efficiency, the use of renewable energy and research, and the development and dissemination of innovative energy-related technology. 46. Therefore there is a need for: (a) A movement towards sustainable patterns of production , distribution and use of energy. To advance this work at the i ntergovernmental level, the Commission on Sustainabl e Development will discuss energy issues at its ninth session. Noting the vital role of energy in the conti nuation of sustained economic growth, especially for developing countries, be they importers or suppliers of http://www.un.org/do cuments/ga/res/spec/aressl 9-2.htm 1011 n or\'7 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 23 of 52 energy, and recognizing the complexities and interdependencies inherent in addressing energy issues within the context of sustainable development, preparations for this session should be initiated at the seventh session and should utilize an open-ended i ntergovernmental group of experts on energy and sustainable development to be held in conjunction with inter-sessional meetings of the eighth and ninth sessions of the Commission. In line with the objectives of Agenda 21, the ninth session of the Commission should contribute to a sustainable energy future f or all; (b) Evolving concrete measures to strengthen international cooperation in order to assist developing countries in their domestic efforts to provide adequate modern energy services, especially electricity, to all sections of their population, particularly in rural areas, in an environmentally sound mann er; (c) Countries to promote policies and plans, bearing in mind the specific needs and priorities of developing countries, that take into accoun t the economic, social and environmental aspects of the production, distribution and use of energy, including the use of lower-pollutant sources of energy such as natural gas; (d) Evolving commitments for the transfer of relevant technology, including time-bound commitments, as appropri ate, to developing countri es and economies in transition so as to enable them to increase the use of ren ewable energy sources and cleaner foss il fuels and to improve effici ency in energy producti on, distribution and use. Countries need to systematically increase the use of renewable en ergy sources according to their specific social, economic , natural, geographical and climati c conditions and cleaner fuel technologies, including fossil fuel technologies, and to improve efficiency in energy production, distribution and use and in other industrial production processes that are intensive users of energy; (e) Promoting efforts in research on and development and use of renewable energy technologies at the international and national level s; (f) In the context of fossil fue l s, encouraging further research, development, and the application and transfer of technology of a cleaner and more effi cient nature, through e f fective international support; (g) Encouraging Governments and the private sector to consider appropriate ways to gradually promote environmental cost internalization so as to achieve more sustainable use of energy, taking fully into account the economic , social and environmental conditions o f all countries, in particular developing countries. In this regard, the internation a l community should cooperate to minimize the possible adverse impacts on the development process of developing countries resulting from the implementation of those p o licies and measures . There is a l so a need to encourage the redu cti on and the gradual elimination of subsidies for energy production and consumption that inhibit sustainable development. Such policies should take fully into account the specific needs and conditions of developing countries, particularly least developed countries, as reflected in the special and differential treatment accorded them in the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures ; httn· //www .nn on1/cloc11ments/1rn)res/snec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1 /2007 A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 24 of 52 (h) Encouraging better coordination on the issue of energy within the United Nations system, under the guidance of the General Assembly and taking into account the coordinating role of the Economic and Social Coun cil. Transport 47. The transport sector and mobility in general have an essential and positive role to play in economic and social development, and transportation needs will undoubtedly increase. Over the next twenty years, transportation is expected to be the major driving force behind a growing world demand for energy. The transport sector is the largest end-user of energy in developed countries and the fast est growing on e in most developing countries . Current patterns of transportation with their dominant patterns of energy use are not sustainable and on the basis of present trends may compound the environmental problems the world is facing and the health impacts referred to in paragraph 31 above. There is a need for: (a) The promotion of integrated transport policies that consider alternative approach es to meeting commercial and private mobility needs and improve performance in the transport sector at the national, regional and global levels, and particularly a need to encourage international cooperation in the transfer of environmentally sound technologies in the transport sector and implementation of appropriate training programmes in accordance with national programmes and priorities; (b) The integration of land-use and urban, peri-urban and rural transport planning, taking into account the need to protect ecosystems; (c) The adoption and promotion, as appropriate, of measures to mitigate the negative impact of transportation on the environment, including measures to improve efficiency in the transportation sector; (d) The use of a broad spectrum of policy instruments to improve energy efficiency and efficiency standards in transportation and related sectors; (e) The continuation of studies in the appropriate forums , including the Internati onal Civil Aviation Organi zation, on t h e use of economic instruments for the mitigation of the negative environmental impact of aviation in the context of sustainable development; (f) Accelerating the phasing-out of the use o f leaded gasoline as soon as possible, in pursuit of the objectives of reducing the severe health impacts of human exposure to lead . In this regard, technological and economic assistance should continue to be provided to developing countries in order to enable them to make such a transition; (g) The promotion of voluntary guidelines for environmentally friendly transport, and actions for reducing vehicle emissions of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides , particulate matter and volatile organic compounds, as soon as possible; (h) Partnerships at the national level, involving Governments, local authorities, non-governmental organizations an d the private http://www.un.org/docurnents/ ga/res/spec/aress 19-2.htrn 10/1/2007 A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 25 of 52 sector , for s trengthening transport inf rastructures a nd developi ng innovat ive mass transpor t schemes . Atmosphere 48. Ensuring that t h e global climate and a tmospher e a r e not f u rther damaged , with irreversible consequen ces for fut ure generations, requires politi cal wil l and concerted efforts by the international community in accordance with the principles enshrined in the United Nations Framework Conven tion on Climate Change. Under the Convention, some first steps have b een taken to deal with the global problem of climate change. Despite the adoption of the Convention, the emission and concentration of gr eenhouse gases continu e to rise, even as scientific evi dence ass embled by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and other relevant bodies continues to diminish the uncertainties and points ever more strongly to the severe risk of global climate change. So far, insufficient progress has been made by many developed countries in meeting their aim to return greenhouse gas emi ssi ons to 1990 levels by the year 2000. It is recognized as one crit ical element of the Berlin Mandate 26 / t h at the commitments set out under article 4 , paragraph 2 (a) and (b), of the Convention are inadequate and that t here is therefore a need to strengthen t h em . It is most important that the Conference of the Parties t o the Convention, at its third session , to be held at Kyoto, Japan in December 1997, adopt a protocol or other legal instrument that fully encompasses the Berlin Mandate. The Geneva Ministerial Declaration, 27/ which was noted without formal adoption, but which received majority support among ministers and other heads of delegation attending the second session of the Conference of the Parties, also called for, inter alia, the acceleration of negotiations on the text of a legally binding protocol or other legal instrument. 49 . At the present ni neteenth special session of t h e General Assembly, the international community has confirmed its recognition of the problem of climate change as one of the biggest challenges facing the world in the next century. The leaders of many countries have stressed the seriousness of this problem in their statements to the Assembly, and have outl ined the actions they had in hand to respond to the challenge, both in their own countries and internationally. 50. The ultimate goal that all countries share is to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. This requires efficient and cost-effective policies and measures that will be sufficient to resul t in a significant reduction in emissions. At the present session, countries reviewed the status of the preparations for the third session of the Conference of the Parti es to the United Nations Framework Convention on Cl imate Change. All agreed that a satisfactory result was vital. 51. The posi tion of many countries with respect to these negotiations is still evolving, and it was agreed that it would not be appropriate to seek to predetermine the results; however, useful discussions on evol ving positions took place. 52 . There is already widespread but not universal agreement t hat it will be necessary to consider legally binding, meaningful, reali stic and equitable targets for countries listed in annex I to the Convention that will result in significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions within specified time frames, such as 2 005, 2010 and l-.t+n·//n mrm nn nra/rlnr.nmPnt<::/u:::i/n >:s/sne:c./::ire:ss l 9-2.htrn 1011/2007 NRES/S-1 9/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 26 of 52 2020. In addition to establishing targets, there i s also widespread agreement that it will be necessary to consider ways and means of ach ieving them and to take into account the economic, adverse environmental and o ther effects of such response measures on all countries , particularl y developing countries. 53. International cooperation in the implementation of chapt er 9 of Agenda 21, in particular in the transfer of technology to and capacity-building in developing countries, is also essential to promote the effective implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 54. There is also a need to strengthen systematic observational networks so as to identify the possible onset and d i stribution of climate change and assess potential impacts, particularly at the regional level. 55. The ozone layer continues to be severely depleted and t h e Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 28 / needs to be strengthened. The Copenhagen Amendment to the Protocol needs to be ratified . The recent successful conclusion of the replenishment negotiations with respect to the Montreal Protocol Multilateral Fund is welcomed. This has made avail able funds for, among other things, earlier phase-out of ozone-depleting substances, i ncluding methyl bromide, in developing countries. Future replenishment should also be adequate to ensure timely implementation of the Montreal Protocol. An increased focus on capacity-building programmes in developing countries within multilateral funds i s also needed, as well as the implementation of effective measures against illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances. 56. Rising lev els of transboundary air pollution should be countered, including through appropriate regional cooperation to reduce pollution levels. Toxic chemicals 57. The sound management of chemicals is essential to sustainable development and is fundamental to human health and environmental protection. All those responsible for chemicals throughout t h eir life cycle bear the responsibil ity for achieving this goal. Substantial progress on the sound management of chemicals has been made since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, in particular through the establishment of the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety and the Inter-Organizational Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals. In addition, domestic regulations have been compl emented by the Code of Ethics on the Internati onal Trade i n Chemicals and by voluntary industry initiatives, such as Responsible Care. Despite substantial progress, a number of chemicals continue to pose significant threats to local, regional and global ecosystems and to human health . Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, there has been an increased understanding of the serious damage that certain toxic chemicals can cause to human health and the environment. Much remains to be done and the environmentally sound management of chemicals should continue to be an importan t issue well beyond 2000. Particular attention should also be given to cooperati on in the development and transfer of technology of safe substi tutes and in the development of capacity for the production of such substitutes. The decision concerning the sound management of chemicals adopted by the Governing Council of the United Nations http://www.un.org/documents/ ga/res/spec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1/2007 • A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 27 of 52 Environment Programme at its n i neteenth session 29/ should be implemented in accordance with the agreed timetables for negotiations on t he conventions relating to pri or i nformed consent and persis tent o r ganic pol l utants . I t is noted that inorgani c chemi cals possess roles and behaviour that are distinc t from o r gani c c hemicals. Hazar dous wast es 58. Substantial progress has been made in the implementation of the Basel Convention, 30/ the Bamako Convention, 31 / the Fourth Lome ' Convention 32/ and other regional conventions, although more remains to be done. Important initiatives aimed at promoting the environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes under the Basel Convention, include (a) activities undertaken to prevent illegal traffic in hazardous wastes ; (b) the establi shment o f r egional centres for training an d technol ogy transf er regarding hazardous waste minimization an d management; and (c) the treatment and d isposal of hazardous wastes as close as possible to their source of origin. These initiati ves should be further developed. It is a l so important and urgent t hat work under the Basel Conventi on be completed to define which hazardous wastes are controlled under the Conventi on and to negotiate, adopt and implement a protocol on liability and compensation for damage resulting from the transboundary movement and disposal of hazardous wastes. Land contaminated by the disposal of hazardous wastes needs to be identified and remedial actions put in hand. Integrated management soluti ons are also required to minimize urban and industrial waste generation and to promote recycling and reuse. Radioactive wastes 59. Radioactive wastes can have very serious environmental and human health impacts over long periods of time. It is therefore essential that they be managed in a safe and responsible way . The storage, transportation, transboundary movement and disposal of radioactive wastes should be guided by all the principles of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and by Agenda 21. States that generate radi oactive wastes have a responsibility to ensure t h e i r safe storage and disposal . In general, radioacti ve wastes should b e disposed of in the territory of the State in whi ch they are generated as far as is compatible with the safety of t h e management of such material. Each country has the responsibility of ensuring that radioactive wastes that fall within its jurisdiction are managed properly in accordance with internationally accepted principles, taking fully into account any transboundary effects. The international community should make all efforts to prohibit the export of radioactive wastes to those countries that do not have appropr iate waste treatment and storage facilities . The international community recognizes t hat regional arrangements or jointly used f acil iti es migh t be appropr iate for the disposal of such wastes in certai n circumstances . Th e management of radioactive wastes 33/ should be undertaken in a manner consistent with international law, including the provisions of rel evant international and regional conventi ons, and wi th inter nationally accepted standards. It is important to intensify safety measures with regard to radioactive wastes. States, in cooperation with relevant international organizati ons, where appropriate, should not promote or allow the s t ora ge or disposal of high-level, intermediate-level or low-l evel radi oactive wastes near t he marine environment unless they determine that scientifi c evidence, consisten t with t h e applicable internationall y agreed principl es and guidel ines , shows that s uch httn · //umnu 11n r.ro/ r1 f\r'nmpnts/ <T::l /rP.s/snP.c.far ess 1 9-2. htm 10/1/2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 28 of 52 storage or disposal poses no unacceptable risk to people or the marine environment and does not interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea. In the process of the consideration of that evidence, appropriate application of the precautionary approach principle should be made. Further action is needed by the international community to address the need for enhancing awareness of the importance of the safe management of radioactive wastes, and to ensure the prevention of incidents and accidents involving the uncontrolled release of such wastes. 60. One of the main recommendations of Agenda 21 and of the Commission on Sustainable Development at its second session in this area was to support the ongoing efforts of the International Atomic Energy Agency, the International Maritime Organization and other relevant international organizations. The Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management currently being negotiated under the auspices of the Agency is now close to completion. It will provide a comprehensive codification of international law and a guide to best practi ces in this area. It will rightly be based on all the principles of best practice for this subject that have evolved in the international community, including the principle that, in general, radioactive wastes should be disposed of in the State in which they were generated as far as is compatible with the safety of the management of such material. Governments should finalize this text and are urged to ratify and implement it as soon as possible so as to further improve practice and strengthen safety in this area. Transportation of irradiated nuclear fuel and high-level waste by sea should be guided by the INF Code, which should be considered for development into a mandatory instrument. The issue of the potential transboundary environmental effects of activities related to the management of radioactive wastes and the question of prior notification, rel evant information and consultation with States that could potentially be affected by such effects, should be further addressed within the appropriate forums. 61. Increased global and regional cooperation, including exchange of information and experi ence and transfer of appropriate technologies, is needed to improve the management of radioactive wastes. There is a need to support the clean-up of sites contaminated as a result of all types of nuclear activity and to conduct health studies in the regions around those sites, as appropriate, with a view to identifying where health treatment may be needed and should be provided. Technical assistance should be provided to developing countries, recognizing the special needs of small island developing States in particular, to enable them to develop or improve procedures for the management and safe disposal of radioactive wastes deriving from the use of radionuclides in medicine , research and industry. Land and sustainable agriculture 62. Land degradation and soil loss threaten the livelihood of millions of people and future food security, with implications for water resources and the conservation of biodiversity. There is an urgent need to define ways to combat or reverse the worldwide accelerating trend of soil degradation, using an ecosystem approach, taking into account the needs of populations living in mountain ecosystems and recognizing the multiple functions of agriculture. The greatest challenge for humanity is to protect and sustainably manage the natural resource base on which food and fibre production depend, http://www.un.org/docurnents/ga/res/spec/aressl9-2.htrn 10/1/2007 • A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra ... Page 29 of 52 while feeding and housing a population that is still growing . The international community has recognized the need for an integrat ed approach to the protection and sustainable management of land and soil resources, as stated i n decision III/11 of t h e Conference of t he Parti es to the Convention on Biol ogical Diversity, 34 / incl uding identification of land degradat ion, wh ich invol ves a l l i nterested parties at t h e local a s well a s the nati onal l evel , inc l uding farmers, small -scale f ood producers, indigenous people (s), non-governmental organizations and, in particular, women, who have a vital role in rural communities . This should include action to ensure secure land tenure and access to land, credit and training, as wel l as the removal of obstacles that inhibit farmers, especially small-scale farmers and peasants, from investing in and improving their lands and farms. 63. It remains essential to continue efforts for the eradication of poverty through, inter alia, capacity-building to rei nforce local food systems, improving food security and providing adequate nutrition for the more than 800 million undernourished people in the world, located mainly in developing countries . Governments should formulate policies that promote sustainable agricul ture as well as productivity and profitability. Comprehensive rural policies are requi red to improve access to land, combat poverty, create employment and reduce rural emigration. In accordance with the commitments agreed to in the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action, adopted by the World Food Summit, 35/ sustainable food security for both the urban and the rural poor should be a policy priority, and developed countries and the international community should provide assistance to developing countries to this end. To meet these objectives, Governments should attach high priority to implementing the commitments of the Rome Declaration and Plan of Action, especially the call for a minimum target of halving the number of undernourished people in the world by the year 2015. Governments and international organizations are encouraged to implement the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, adopted by the International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources held at Leipzig, Germany from 17 to 23 June 1996. At the sixth session of the Commission on Sustainabl e Development, in 1998, the issues of sustainable agriculture and land use should be considered in rel ation to freshwater. The challenge for agricultural research is to increase yields on all farmlands while protecting and conservi ng the natural resource base . The international community and Governments must continue or increase investments in agricultural research because it can take years or decades to develop new lines of research and put research findings into sustainable practice on the land. Developing countries, particularly those with high population densities, will need international cooperation to gain access to the results of such research and to technology aimed at i mproving agricul tural productivity i n limited spaces. More generally, inter national cooperation continues to be needed to assist developing countries in many other aspects of basic requirements of agriculture . There is a need to support the continuation of the reform process in conformity with the Uruguay Round agreements, particularly article 20 of the Agreement on Agriculture, and to fully implement the World Trade Organization Decision on Measures Concerning the Possible Negative Effects of t h e Reform Programme on Least-Developed and Net Food-Importing Developing Countries. Desertificati on and drought httn· //urww im nrP-/<locuments/Q·a/res/soec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1/2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra ... Page 30 of52 64. Governments are urged to conclude (by signing and ratifying, accepting, approving and/or acceding to) and to implement as soon as possible the United Nation s Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa, which entered into force on 26 December 1996, and to support and actively participate in the first session of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention, which is to be held in Rome in September 1997. 65. The international community is urged to recognize the vital importance and necessity of international cooperation and partnership in combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought. In order to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of existing financial mechanisms, the international community, in particular developed countries, should therefore support the global mechanism that would have the capacity to promote actions leading to the mobilization and chann elling of substanti al resources for advancing the implementation of the Convention and its regional annexes, and to contribute to the eradication of poverty, which is one of the principal consequences of desertification and drought in the majority of affected countries. Another view was that the international community, in particular developed countries , should provide new and addition a l resources towards the same ends. The transfer to developing countries of environmentally sound, economically viable and socially acceptable technologies relevant to combating desertification and/or mitigating the effects of drought, with a v i ew to contributing to the achievement of sustainable development in affected areas, should be undertaken without delay on mutually agreed terms. Biodiversity 66. There remains an urgent need for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of components of genetic resources. The threat to biodiversity sterns mainly from habitat destruction , over-harvesting, pollution and the inappropriate introduction of forei gn plants and animals. There is an urgent need for Governments and the international community, with the support of relevant international instituti ons, as appropriate: (a) To take decisive action to conserve and maintain genes, species and ecosystems with a view to promoting the sustainable management of biological diversity; (b) To ratify the Conventi on on Biological Diversity and implement it fully and effectively together with the decisions of the Conference of the Parties, including recommendations on agricultural biological diversity and the Jakarta Mandate on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity, and pursue urgently other tasks identified by the Conference of the Parties at its third meeting under the work programme on terrestrial biological diversity, 36/ within the context of the ecosystems approach adopted in the Convention; (c) To undertake concrete actions for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of geneti c resources, consistent with the provisions of the Convention and the decisions of the Conference of the Parties on, inter alia, access to genetic resources and the handling of biotechnology and its benefits; (d) To pay further attention to the provision of new and http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 10/1 /?007 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra ... Page 31 of52 additional financial resources for the implementation of the Convention; (e) To facilitate the transfer of technologies, including biotechnology, to developing countries, consistent with the provisions of the Convent i on; (f) To respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles, and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from traditional knowl edge so that t h ose communities are adequately protected and rewarded, consistent with the provisions of the Convention on Biologi cal Diversity and in accordance with the deci sions of the Conference of the Parties; (g) To complete rapidly the biosafety protocol under the Convention on Biological Diversity, on the understanding that the United Nations Environment Programme International Technical Guidelines for Safety in Biotechnology may be used as an interim mechanism during its development, and to complement it after its conclusion, including the recommendations on capacity-building related to biosafety; (h) To stress the importance of the establishment of a clearing- house mechanism by Parties to the Convention, consistent with the provisions o f the Convention; (i) To recognize the role of women in the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of biologi cal resources; (j) To provide the necessary support to integrate the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainabl e use of biological resources into national development plans; (k) To promote international cooperation to develop and strengthen national capacity-building, including human resource development and institution-building; (1) To provide incentive measures at the national, regional and international levels to promote the conservation and sustainabl e use of biological diversity, and to consider means to enhance developing countries' capabilities to compete in the emerging market for biological resources, while improving the functioning of that market. Sustainable tourism 67. Tourism is now one of the world's largest industries and one of its fas test growing economic sectors. The expected growth in the touri sm sector and the increasing reliance of many developing countries, including s mall island developing States, on this sector as a major employer and contributor to local, national, subregional and regional economies highlights the need to pay special attention to the relationship between environmental conservation and protection and sustainable t ourism. In this regard , the efforts of developing countries to broaden the traditional concept of tourism to include cultural and eco-touris m merit special consideration as well as the assi stance of the international community, including the international financial institutions. 68. There i s a need to consider further t h e importance of tourism in littn· //um.nu 1m orCT/clor.11mP.nts/Qa/res/snec/aress 19-2.htm 10/112007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 32 of 52 the context of Agenda 21 . Tourism, like other s e ctors, uses resources, generates wastes and creates environmental, cultural and social costs and benefits in the process. For sustainable patterns of consumption and production in the tourism sector, it is essential to strengthen national policy development and enhance capacity in the areas of physical p lanning , impact assessment, and the use of economic and regulatory instruments, as well as in the areas of information, education and marketing . A particular concern is the degradation of biodiversity and fragile ecosystems, such as coral r eefs, mountains, coastal areas and wetlands. 69. Policy development and implementation should take place in cooperation with all interested parties, especially the privat e sector and local and indigenous communities. The Commission should d evelop an action-oriented international programme of work on sustainable tourism, to be defined in cooperation with the World Tourism Organization, the United Nations Conferen ce on Trade and Development, the United Nations Environment Programme, the Conference of the Parties to the Conventi on on Biological Diversity and other relevant b odies. 70. The sustainable development of tourism is o f importance for all countries, in particul ar f or small island developing States . International cooperation is needed to facilitate tourism development in developing countries -including the development and marketing of eco-tourism, bearing in mind the importance of t he conservati on policies required to secure long-term benefits from development in this sector -in particular in small island developing States, in the context of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. Small island developing States 71. The international community reaffirms its commitment to the implementation of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small I sland Developing States . The Commissi on on Sustainabl e Development carried out a mid-term review of sel ected programme areas of the Programme of Action at its fourth sessi on, in 1996. At its sixth session, in 1998, the Commission will undertake a review of all the outstanding chapters and issues of the Programme of Action. A full and comprehensive review of the Programme of Action, consistent with the r eview of oth er United Nations global conf erences, is scheduled for 1999 . The Commission, at its fifth session, adopted a resolution on modalities for the full and compreh ensive review of the Programme of Action, in which it recommended that the General Assembly hold a two-day special session immediately preceding its fifty-fourth session for an in-depth assessment and appraisal of the implementation of the Programme of Action. 37 / The full implementation of the decision would represent a significant contribution to achieving the obj ectives of the Global Conference for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States . 72. Considerable efforts are being made at the national and regional levels to implement the Programme of Action. These efforts need to be supplemented by effective financial support from the international community. External assistance for building the requisite infrastructure and for national capacity-building, including human and institutional capacity, and for facilitating access to information on sustainable development practices and the transfer of environmen tally sound techn ologies , in accordance with paragraph 34.14 (b) of Agenda http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 10/1 /?007 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 33 of 52 21, is crucial for small island developing States to effectively attain the goals of the Programme of Action. To assist national capacity-building, the small island developing States information network and small island developing States technical assistance programme should be made operational as soon as possible, with support for existing regional and subregional institutions. Natural disasters 73. Natural disasters have disproportionate consequences for developing countries, in particular small island developing States and countries with extremely fragile ecosystems. Programmes for sustainable development should give higher priority to the implementation of the commitments made at the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction held at Yokohama, Japan from 23 to 27 May 1994. 38/ There is a particular need for capacity-building for disaster planning and management and for the promotion and facilitation of the transfer of early-warning technologies to countries prone to disasters, in particular developing countries and countries with economies in transition. 74. Given that further work i s needed throughout the world, there is a special need to provide developing countries with further assistance in: (a) Strengthening mechanisms and policies designed to reduce the effects of natural disasters, improve preparedness and integrate natural disaster considerations in development planning, through, inter alia, access to resources for disaster mitigation and preparedness, response and recovery; (b) Improving access to relevant technology and training in hazard and risk assessment and early warning systems, and in protection from env ironmental d i sasters, consistent with national, subregional and regional strategies; (c) Providing and facilitating technical, scientific and financial support for disaster preparedness and response in the context of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction . Major technological and other disasters with an adverse impact on the environment 75. Major technological and other d i sasters with an adverse impact on the environment can be a substantial obstacle in the way of achieving the goals of sustainable devel opment in many countries. The international community should intensify cooperation in the prevention and reduction of such disasters and in disaster relief and post-disaster rehabilitation in order to enhance the capabilities of affected countries to cope wi th such situations. C. Means of implementation Financial resources and mechanisms 76. Financ ial resources and mechanisms play a key role in the implementation of Agenda 21 . In general, the financing for the implementation of Agenda 21 will come from a country's own public and private sectors . For developing countries, official development httn · //www. nn. om./ do cum en ts/ fl.alres/soec/ aress 19-2 .htrn 10/1 /2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 34 of 52 assistance is a main source of external funding, and substantial new and additional funding for sustainable development and the implementation of Agenda 21 will be required. Hence, all finan cial commitments of Agenda 21, particularly those contained in chapter 33, and the provisions with regard to new and additional resources that are both adequate and predictable need to be urgently fulfilled. Renewed efforts are essential to ensure that all sources of funding contribute to economic growth, social development and environmental protection in the context of sustainable development and the implementation of Agenda 21. 77. For developing countries, particularly those in Africa and the least developed countries, official development assistance remains a main source of external funding; it is essential for the prompt and effective implementation of Agenda 21 and cannot generally be replaced by private capital flows. Developed countries should therefore fulfil the commitments undertaken to reach the accepted United Nations target of 0.7 per cent of gross national product as soon as possible. In this context the present downward trend in the ratio of official development assistance to gross national product causes concern. Intensified efforts should be made to reverse this trend, taking into account the need for improving the quality and effectiveness of official development assistance. In the spirit of global partnership, the underlying factors that have led to this decrease should be addressed by all countries. Strategies should be worked out for increasing donor support for aid programmes and revitalizing the commitments that donors made at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Devel opment. Some countries already meet or exceed the 0.7 per cent agreed target. Official financial flows to developing countries, particularly the least developed countries, remain an essential element of the partnership embodied in Agenda 21. Official development assistance plays a significant role, inter alia, in capacity-building, infrastructure, combating poverty and environmental protection in developing countries, and a crucial role in the least developed countries. Official development assistance can play an important complementary and catal ytic role in promoting economic growth and may, in some cases, play a catalytic role in encouraging private investment and, where appropriate, all aspects of country-driven capacity-building and strengthening. 78. Funding by multilateral financial institutions through their concessi onal mechanisms is also essential to developing countri es in their efforts to fully implement the sustainable development objectives contained in Agenda 21 . Such institutions should continue to respond to the development needs and priorities of developing countries. Developed countries should urgently meet their commitments under the eleventh replenishment of the International Development Association. 79. Continued and full donor commitment to adequate, sustained and predictable funding for Global Environment Facility operations is important for developing countries so that global environmental benefits can be further achieved. Donor countries are urged to engage in providing new and additional resources, with a view to equitable burden-sharing, through the satisfactory replenishment of the Facility, which makes available grant and concessional funding designed to achieve global environmental benefits, thereby promoting sustainabl e development. Consideration should be given to further exploring the flexibility of the existing mandate of the Facility in supporting activities to achieve global environmental benefits. With http://www.un.org/documents/ ga/res/spec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1/2007 A!RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 35 of 52 regard to the project cycle, further efforts should be made to continue streamlining the decision-making process in order to maintain an effective and efficient, as well as transparent, participatory and democratic framework . The Global Environment Facility, when acting as the operating entity of the financial mechanism of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity, should continue to operate in conformity with those Conventions and promote their implementation. The Facility implementing agencies, the United Nations Development Programme, the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Bank, should strengthen, as appropriate and in accordance with their respective mandates, their cooperation at all levels, including the field l evel . 80. The efficiency, effectiveness and impact of the operational activities of the United Nations system must be enhanced by, inter alia, a substantial increase in their funding on a predictable, continuous and assured basis, commensurate with the increasing needs of developing countries, as well as through the full implementation of General Assembly resolutions 47/199 of 22 December 1992 and 48/162 of 20 December 1993. There is a need for a substantial increase in resources for operational activities for development on a predictable, continuous and assured basis, commensurate with the increasing needs of developing countries. 81. Private capital is a major tool for achieving economic growth in a growing number of developing countries. Higher levels of foreign private investment should be mobilized given its mounting importance. To stimulate higher levels of private investment, Governments should aim at ensuring macroeconomic stability, open trade and investment policies, and well-functioning legal and financial systems. Further studies should be undertaken, including studies on the design of an appropriate environment, at both the national and international levels, for facilitating foreign private investment, in particular foreign direct investment flows to developing countries, and enhancing its contribution to sustainable development. To ensure that such investments are supportive of sustainable development objectives, it is essential that the national Governments of both investor and recipient countries provide appropriate regulatory frameworks and incentives for private investment. Therefore further work should be undertaken on the design of appropriate policies and measures aimed at promoting long-term investment flows to developing countries for activities that increase their productive capability, and at reducing the volatility of these flows. Official development assistance donors and multilateral development banks are encouraged to strengthen their commitment to supporting investment in developing countries in a manner that jointly promotes economic growth, social development and environmental protection. 82. The external debt problem continues to hamper the efforts of developing countries to achieve sustainable development. To resolve the remaining debt problems of the heavily indebted poor countries, creditor and debtor countries and international financial institutions should continue their efforts to find effective, equitable, development-oriented and durable solutions to the debt problem, including debt relief in the form of debt rescheduling, debt reduction, debt swaps and, as appropriate, debt cancellation, as well as grants and concessional flows that will help restore creditworthiness. The joint World Bank/International Monetary Fund Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Debt Initiative supported by the Paris Club creditor countries is an important development to reduce httn · //www. nn. orn/ <lo cum en ts/ f!.alres/ soec/ aress 19-2 .htm 10/1 /2007 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 36 of 52 the multila teral debt problem. Implementation of the Initiative requires additional financial resources from both bilateral and mul tilateral creditors without affecting the support required for the development activities of devel oping countries. 83. A f uller understanding of the i mpact of indebtednes s on the pursuit of s ustainable development by developing countries is needed. To this end, the United Nations Secretariat, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund are invited to collaborate with the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development in further considering the interrelationship between indebtedness and sustainable development for developing countries. 84. Whi l e international cooperation is very important in assi sting developing countries in their development efforts, in general financing for the implementation of Agenda 21 will come from countries' own public and private sectors. Policies for promoting domestic resource mobilization, including credit, could encompass sound macroeconomic reforms, including fiscal and monetary policy reforms, review and reform of existing subsidies, and the promotion of personal savings and access to credit, especially micro-credit, in particular for women . Such policies should be decided by each country, taking into account its own characteristics and capabilities and different levels of development, especially as reflected in national s u stainable development strategies, where they exist. 85. There is a need for making existing subsidies more transparent in order to increase public awareness of their actual economic , social and environmental impact, and for reforming or, where appropriate, removing them. Further national and international research in that area should be promoted in order to assist Governments in identifying and considering phasing-out subsidies that have market distorting, and socially and environmentally damaging impacts. Subsidy reductions should take full account of the specific conditions and the different levels of development of individual countries and should consider potentially regressive impacts, particularly on developing countries. In addition, it would be desirable to use international cooperation and coordination to promote the reduction of subsidies where these have important implications for competitiveness . 86. In order to reduce the barriers to the expanded use of economic instruments , Governments and international organizations shoul d collect and share information on their use and introduce pilot schemes that would, inter alia, demonstrate how to make the best use of them while avoiding adverse effects on competitiveness and the terms of trade of all countries, particularly developing countries, and on marginali zed and vulnerable sectors of society. When introducing economic instruments that raise the cost of economic activities for households and small and medium-sized enterprises, Governments should consider gradual phase-ins, public education programmes and targeted technical assistance as strategies for reducing distributional impacts. Various studies and practical experience in a number of countries, in particular developed countries , indicate that the appropriate use of relevant economic instruments may help generate positive possibilities for shifting consumer and producer behaviour to more sustainable directions in those countries . There is, however, a need to conduct further studies and test practical experience in more countries, taking into account country-specific conditions and the acceptability, legitimacy, equity, efficiency and effectiveness of such economic instruments·. http://www. un. orgl documents/ ga/res/ spec/ aress 19-2.htm 10/1/2007 A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra ... Page 37of52 87 . Innova t i ve f inancial mechanisms are currently unde r dis c ussion in i nternation a l and nati ona l forums but have not yet fully evolved c onceptual l y . Th e Sec retary-General is to submit a report concerning innov ative f inancing mechanisms to the Economic and Social Council at its substantive sess ion of 1997 . In vi ew o f the widespread interest in those mechanisms, appropria t e orga nizati ons, i ncluding the United Na tions Confer ence on Tr a de and Development , the World Bank and t he International Monetary Fund, are invited to consider conducti ng forward-looking studies of concerted action on such mechanisms and to share them with the Commission on Sustainable Development, other relevant intergovernmental organizations and non-governmental organ izations. In thi s regard, i nnovative funding shou ld complement offi cial devel opment a s sistan ce, not replace it. New initiati ves for cooperative implementati on of env ironment and development obj ectives under mutually benefic i a l incen tive structures should b e further expl ored. Transfer of envi ronmentally sound technologies 88. The availability of scientific and tech nologi cal i nformation and access to and t ransfer of environmentally sound technol ogies are essential requirements for sustainable development. Th ere is an urgent need for developing countries to acquire greater access to envi ronmentally sound technologies if they are to meet the obligations agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environmen t and Development and in the rel evant i nternational conventions. The abil ity of devel oping countries to partici pate in, benefit from and contri bute to rapid advances in science and technology can significantly influence their development. This calls for the urgent fulfilment of all the Conference commitments concerning concrete measures for the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries . The international community should promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, access to and transfer of environmentally sound technologies and the corresponding know-how, in particular to developing countries, on favourable terms, including concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed, takin g into account the need to protect i nte l lectual propert y righ ts as well as t h e special n eeds of developing countries for t he i mp l ementati on of Agenda 21. Current forms of cooper ation involvi ng the publ i c and private sectors of devel opi ng and developed count r i es s hould be b uilt upon and expanded . In this context , it is important to identify barriers and restrictions to the transfer of publicly and privately owned environmentally sound technologies , with a view to reduci ng such constraints while creating specific incentives , fiscal and otherwise, for the transfer of such technologies. Progress in the fulfilment of all the p rovi sions contained in chapter 34 of Agenda 21 should be reviewed regul arl y as part of the mu lti-year work programme of the Commissi on on Sustainable Development. 89. Technology transfer and the developmen t of the human and institutional capacity to adapt, absorb and d i sseminate technologies, as well as to generate technical knowledge and innovati ons , are part of the same p rocess and must be gi ven equal importance . Governments have an important role to play i n providing, inter alia , research and development i nstitutions with i ncenti ves to promote and contribute to the developmen t of insti tutional and h uman capacities. 90 . Much of the most advanced environmentally sound technol ogy is devel oped and h eld by t h e pri vat e sector. The creation of an enabling l.tt.-.· //n mnu nn nrrr/ilrH'11niPnt<:/ crn/rP.<:/«.nf'.c./'rlr e «.s 1 9-2.ht:Tn 10/1 /2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 38 of 52 environment, on the part of both developed and developing countries, including supportive economic and fiscal measures , as well as a practical system of environmental regulations and compliance mechanisms, can help to stimulate private sector investment in and transfer of environmentally sound technology to developing countries. New ways of financial intermediation for the financing of environmentally sound technologies, such as "green credit lines", should be examined. Further efforts should be made by Governments and international development instituti ons to facilitate the transfer of privately owned technol ogy on concessi onal terms, as mutually agreed, to developing countries, especially the least developed countries . 91. A proportion of technology i s held or owned by Governments and public institutions or results from publicly funded research and development activities. The Government's control and influence over the technol ogical knowledge produced in publicly funded research and development institutions open up the potential for the generation of publicl y owned technologies that could be made accessible to developing countri es, a nd could be an important means for Governments to catalyse private sector technology transfer . Proposals for the further study of the options wi th respect to those technologies and publicly funded research and devel opment acti vities are to be welcomed. 92. Governments should create a legal and policy framework that is conducive to technology-related private sector investments and long-term sustainable development objectives. Governments and international development inst itutions should continue to p l ay a key role in establishing public-private partnerships, within and between developed and developing count ries and countries with e c onomies in transition. Such partnerships are essential for linking the advantages of the private sector -access to finance and technology, managerial efficiency, entrepr eneurial experience and engineering experti se -with the capacity of Governments to create a policy environment that is conducive to technology-related private sect or investments and long-term sustainable development objectives. 93 . The creation of centres for the transfer of technology at various l evel s, including the regional l evel, could greatly contribute to achievi ng the objective of transfer of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries. For this purpose, existing United Nations bodies, includi ng, as appropriate, the Commissi on on Science and Technology for Development, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Dev elopment, the United Nati ons Industrial Dev elopment Organizati on, the United Nations Environment Programme and the regional commissions , should cooperate and mechanisms be used, such as technical cooperation among developing countries and economic cooperation among developing countries. 94. Governments and international development institutions can also play an important role in bringing together companies from developed and developing c ountries and countries with economies in transition so that they can create sustainable and mutually beneficial business linkages. Incentives should be provided to stimulate the building of joint ventures between small and medium-si zed enterprises of devel oped and developing countries and countries with economies in transition, and c leaner production programmes in public and private companies should be supported. 95. Governments of developing countries should take appropriate http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aressl9-2.htm 1 (l/1 /')(lff7 AJRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 39 of 52 measures to strengthen South-South cooperation for technology transfer and capacity-building. Such measures could include the networking of existing national information systems and sources on environmentally sound technologies, and the networking of national cleaner production centres, as well as the establishment of sector-specific regional centres for technology transfer and capacity-building. Interested donor countries and international organizations should further assist developing countries in those efforts through, inter alia, supporting trilateral arrangements and contributing to the United Nations Voluntary Trust Fund for South-South Cooperation . 96. Attention must also be given to technology needs assessment as a tool for Governments in identifying a portfolio for technology transfer projects and capacity-building activities to be undertaken to facilitate and accelerate the development, adoption and dissemination of environmentally sound technologies in parti cular sectors of the national economy. It is also important for Governments to promote the integration of environmental technol ogy assessment with technology needs assessment as an important tool for evaluating environmentally sound technologies and the organizational, managerial and human resource systems related to the proper use of those technologies. 97. There is a need to further explore and enhance the potenti al of global electronic information and telecommunication networks. This would enable countries to choose among the available technological options that are most appropriate to their needs. In this respect, the international community should assist developing countries in enhancing their capacities. Capacity-building 98. Renewed commitment and support from the international community is essential to support national efforts for capacity7building in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. 99. The United Nations Development Programme, inter alia, through its Capacity 21 programme, should give priority attention to building capacity for the elaboration of sustainable development strategies based on participatory approaches. In this context, developing countries should be assisted, particularly in the areas of the design, implementation and evaluation of programmes and projects. 100. Capacity-building efforts should pay particular attention to the needs of women in order to ensure that their skills and experience are fully used in decision-making at all levels. The speci al needs, culture, traditions and expertise of indigenous people must be recognized. International financial institutions should continue to give high priority to funding capacity-building for s ustainable development in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Special attention should also be given to strength ening the ability of developing countries to absorb and generate technologies. International cooperation needs to be strengthened to promote the endogenous capacity of developing countries to utilize scientific and technological developments from abroad and to adapt them to local conditi ons. The role of the private sector in capacity-building should be further promoted and enhanced. South-South cooperation in capacity-building should be further supported through "triangular" cooperative arrangements . Both developed and developing countries, in cooperation with relevant international institutions, need to strengthen their efforts to httn ://www .un.orn/docurnents/ e:a/res/soec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1/2007 A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 40 of 52 develop and implement strategies for more effective sharing of environmental expertise and data. Science 101 . Public and private investment in science , education and training, and research and development should be increased significantly, with emphasis on the need to ensure equal access to opportunities for girls and women. 102. International consensus-building is facilitated by the availability of authoritative scientific evidence. There is a need for further scientific cooperation, especially across disciplines, in order to verify and strengthen scientific evidence and make it accessible to developing countries. This evidence is important for assessing environmental conditions and changes. Steps should also be taken by Governments, academia, and scientific institutions to improve access to scientific information related to the environment and sustainable development. The promotion of existing regional and global networks may be useful for this purpose. 103. Increasing efforts to build and strengthen scientific and technological capacity in developing countries is an extremely important objective. Multilateral and bilateral donor agencies and Governments, as well as specific funding mechanisms, should continue to enhance their support for developing countries. Attention should also be given to countries with economies in transition. 104. The international community should also actively collaborate in promoting innovations in information and communication technologies for the purpose of reducing environmental impacts, inter alia, by taking approaches to technology transfer and cooperation that are based on user needs. Education and awareness 105. Education increases human welfare, and is a decisive factor in enabling people to become productive and responsible members of society. A fundamental prerequisite for sustainable development is an adequately financed and effect ive educational system at all levels, particularly the primary and secondary levels, that is accessible to all and that augments both human capacity and well-being. The core themes of education for sustainability include lifelong learning, interdisciplinary education, partnerships, multicultural education and empowerment. Priority should be given to ensuring women's and girls' full and equal access to all levels of education and training. Special attention should also be paid to the training of teachers, youth leaders and other educators. Education should also be seen as a means of empowering youth and vulnerable and marginalized groups, including those in rural areas, through intergenerational partnerships and peer education. Even in countries with strong education systems, there is a need to reorient education, awareness and training so as to promote widespread public understanding, critical analysis and support for sustainable development. Education for a sustainable future should engage a wide spectrum of institutions and sectors, including but not limited to business/industry, international organizations, youth, professional organizations, non-governmental organizations, higher education, government, educators and foundations, to address the concepts and issues of sustainable development, as embodied throughout Agenda 21, and should include the preparation of http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 1011 nnrn AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 41 of 52 sustainable development education plans and programmes, as emphasized in the work programme of the Commission on Sustainable Development on the subject adopted in 1996. 39/ The concept of education for a sustainable future will be further developed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, in cooperation with others. 106. It is necessary to support and strengthen universities and other academic centres in promoting cooperation among them, particularly cooperation between those of developing countries and those of developed countries . International l egal instruments and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Developmen t 107. The impl ementation and application of the principles contained in the Rio Declaration on Env ironment and Development should be the subject of regular assessment and reporting to the Commission on Sustainable Development by the Secretariat in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme, in particular. 108 . Access to informati on and broad public participation in decision-making are fundamental to sustainabl e development. Further efforts are required to promote, in the light of country-specifi c condi tions, the integration of environment and development poli cies, through appropriate legal and regulatory poli cies, instruments and enforcement mechanisms at the n ational, state, provincial and local levels. At the national level, each individual should have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in the communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. Governments and legislators, with the s upport, where appropriate, of competent international organizations, should establish judicial and administrative procedures for legal redress and remedy of actions affecting environment and development that may be unlawful or infringe on rights under the law, and s hould provide access to individuals , groups and organizations with a recogni zed legal interest. Access should be provided to effective judicial and administrative channels for affected individual s and groups to ensure that a ll authorities, both national and local, and other civil organizations remain accountable for their actions in accordance with their obligations, at the appropriate levels f or the country concerned, taking into account the judicial and administrative systems of the country concerned. 109. Taking into account the provisions of chapter 39, particularly paragraph 39.1, of Agenda 21, it is necessary to continue the progressive development and, as and when appropriate, codification of international law related to sustainable devel opment. Relevant bodies in which such tasks are being undertaken should cooperate and coordinate in this regard. 110. Implementation of and compliance with commitments made under international treaties and other instruments in the field of the environment remain a priority. Implementation can be promoted by secure, sustained and predictable financial support , sufficien t institutional capacity, human resources and adequate access to technology. Cooperation on implementation between States on mutually agreed terms may help reduce potential sources of conflict between States. In this context, States should further study and consider litttv//ummr nn "ro/rl"r.11mP.nts/o-~/n~s/snec/aressl 9-2.htm 1011 /2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 42 of 52 methods to broaden and make more effective the range of techniques available at present, taking into account relevant experience under existing agreements and, where appropriate, modalities for dispute avoidance and settlement, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. It is also important to further improve reporting and data-collection systems and to further develop appropriate compl iance mechanisms and procedures , on a mutually agreed basis, to help and encourage States to fulfil all their obligations, including means of implementation, under multilateral environmental agreements. Developing countries should be assisted to develop these tools according to country-specific conditions. Information and tools for measuring progress 111. The further development of cost-effective tools for collecting and disseminating information for decision makers at all levels through strengthened data collection , including, as appropriate, gender-disaggregated data and information that makes visible the unremunerated work of women for use in programme planning and implementation, compilation and analysis is urgently needed. In this context, emphasis will be placed on support for national and international scientific and technological data centres with appropriate electronic communication links between them. 112. A supportive environment needs to be established to enhance national capacities and capabiliti es for information collection, processing and dissemination, especially in developing countries, to facilitate public access to information on global environmental issues through appropriate means, including high-tech information and communication infrastructure related to the global environment, in the light of country-specific conditions, using, where available, such tools as geographic information systems and video transmission technology, including global mapping. In this regard, international cooperation is essential. 113. Environmental impact assessments are an important national tool for sustainable development. In accordance with Principle 17 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development , environmental impact assessments should be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority; where appropriate, they should be made available early in the project cycle. 114. The work programme of the Commission on Sustainable Development on indicators of sustainable development should result in a practicable and agreed set of indicators, suited to country-specific conditions, including a limited number of aggregated indicators , to be used at the national level, on a voluntary basis, by the year 2000. Such indicators of sustainable development, including, where appropriate, and subject to nationally specific conditions, sector-specific ones, should play an important role in monitoring progress towards sustainable development at the national level and in facilitating national reporting, as appropriate. 115 . National reports on the implementation of Agenda 21 have proved to be a valuable means of sharing information at the international and regional levels and, even more important, of providing a focus for the coordination of issues related to sustainable development at the national level within individual countries. National reporting should continue (see also para. 133 (b) and (c) below). http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 1 (1/1 /')(1(1'7 A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 43 of 52 IV. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS 116. The achievement of sustainable development requires continued support from international institutions. The institutional framework outlined in chapter 38 of Agenda 21 and determined by the General Assembly in its resolution 47/191 of 22 December 1992 and other relevant resolutions, including the specific functions and roles of various organs , organizations and programmes within and outside the United Nations system, will continue to be fully relevant in the period after the nineteenth special session of the General Assembly . In the light of the ongoing discussions on reform within the United Nations, international institutional arrangements in the area of sustainable development are intended to contribute to the goal of strengthening the entire United Nations system. In this context, the strengthening of the institutions for sustainable development, as well as the achievement of the goals and objectives set out below are particularly important. A. Greater coherence in various intergovernmental organizations and processes 117. Given the increasing number of decision-making bodies concerned with various aspects of sustainable development, including international conventions, there is an ever greater need for better policy coordination at the intergovernmental level, as well as for continued and more concerted efforts to enhance collaboration a mong the secretariats of those decision-making bodies. Under the guidance of the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council should play a strengthened role in coordinating the activities of the United Nations system in the economic , social and related fields. 118. The conferences of the parties to conventions signed at t he United Nations Conference on Environment and Development or as a result of it, as well as other conventions related to sustainable development, should cooperate in exploring ways and means of collaborating in their work to advance the effective implementation of the conventions. There is also a need for environmental conventions to continue to pursue sustainable development objectives consistent with their provisions and be fully responsive to Agenda 21. To this end, inter alia, the conferences of the parties to or governing bodies of the conventions signed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, or as a result of it, and of other relevant conventions and agreements should, if appropriate, give consideration t o the co-location of secretariats, to improving the scheduling of meetings, to integrating national reporting requirements, t o improving the balance between sessions of the conferences of the parties and sessions of their subsidiary bodies, and to encouraging and facilitating the participation of Governments in those sessions, at an appropriate level. 119. Institutional arrangements for the convention secretariats should provide effective support and efficient services, while ensuring the appropriate autonomy necessary for them to be efficient at their respective locations . At the international and national levels there is a need for, inter alia, better scientific assessment of ecological linkages between the conventions; identification of programmes that have multiple benefits; and enhanced public awareness-raising with 1-.ttn· //nrnrnr 1m "ro/t1"r11rnf'nts:/m1/rP.s:/s:nP.r./~ress 19-2.htm 10/1 /2007 A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 44 of 52 respect to the conventions. Such tasks should be undertaken by the United Nations Environment Programme in accordance with the relevant decisions of its Governing Council and in full cooperation with the conferences of the parties to and governing bodies of relevant conventions. Efforts of convention secretariats, in response to requests from the respective conferences of the parties, to explore, where appropriate, modalities for suitable liaison arrangements in Geneva and/or New York for the purpose of enhancing linkages with delegations and organizations at those United Nations centres are welcomed and fully supported. 120. It is necessary to strengthen the Inter-Agency Committee on Sustainable Development of the Administrative Committee on Coordination and its system of task managers , with a view to further enhancing system-wide intersectoral cooperation and coordination for the implementation of Agenda 21 and for the promotion of coordinated follow-up to the major United Nations conferences in the area of sustainable development. 121. The Commission on Sustainable Deve1opment should promote increased regional implementation of Agenda 21 in cooperation with relevant regional and subregional organizations and the United Nations regional commissions , in accordance with the results of their priority-setting efforts, with a view to enhancing the role such bodies play in the achievement of sustainable development objectives agreed at the international level. The regional commissions could provide appropriate support, consistent with their work programmes, to regional meetings of experts related to the implementation of Agenda 21. B. Role of relevant organizations and institutions of the United Nations system 122. In order to facilitate the national implementation of Agenda 21, all organizations and programmes of the United Nations system, within their respective areas of expertise and mandates , should strengthen, individually and jointly, the support for national efforts to implement Agenda 21 and make their efforts and actions consistent with national plans, policies and priorities of member States. Coordination of United Nations activities at the field level sh ould be further enhanced through the resident coordinator system in full consultation with national Governments. 123. The role of United Nations Environment Programme, as the principal United Nations body in the field of the environment, should be further enhanced. Taki ng into account its catalytic role, and in conformity with Agenda 21 and the Nairobi Declaration on the Role and Mandate of the United Nati ons Environment Programme , adopted on 7 February 1997, 40/ the Programme is to be the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment. In this context, decision 19/32 of 4 April 1997 of the United Nations Environment Programme Governing Council on governance of the Programme 41/ and other related Governing Council decisions 41/ are relevant. The role of the United Nations Environment Programme in the further development of international environmental law should be strengthened, including the development of coherent interlinkages http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 1011 n nrn AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 45 of 52 among relevant environmental conventions in cooperation with their respective conferences of the parties or governing bodies. In performing its functions related to the conventions signed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development or as a result of it, and other relevant conventions, the United Nations Environment Programme should strive to promote the effective implementation of those conventions in a manner consistent with the provisions of the conventions and the decisions of the conferences of the parties. 124. The United Nations Env ironment Programme, in the p erformance of its role, should focus on environmental issues , taking into account the development perspective . A revitalized Programme should be supported by adequate, stable and predictable funding. The Programme should continue providing effecti ve support to the Commission on Sustainable Developmen t , inter alia, in the f orm of scientific, t echnical and policy information and analysis of and advice on global environmental i ssues. 125. The United Nations Development Programme should continue to strengthen its contribution to and programmes in sustainable development and the implementation o f Agenda 21 at a ll l evels , particularly in the area of promoting capacity-building (including through its Capacity 21 programme) in cooperation with other organizations , as well as i n the f i eld of poverty eradi cation. 126. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, in accordance with General Assembly resolution 51 /167 of 16 December 1996 and relevant decisions of the Trade and Devel opment Board on the work programme, should continue to play a key role in the implementation of Agenda 21 through the integrated examination of linkages among trade, investment, technology , finance and sustainable development. 127 . The Commi ttee on Trade and Environment of the World Trade Organization, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and the United Nations Environment Programme should advance their coordinated work on trade and environment, involving other appropriate international and regional organizations in their cooperation and coordination . I n coordinati on with the World Trade Organization, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and the United Nations Envir onment Programme should continue to support efforts to promote the integration of trade, environmen t and development. The Commission on Sustainabl e Development should continue t o play its important rol e i n the deliberations on trade and environment so as to facilitate the integrated consideration of a ll factors relevant for achieving sustainable development. 128. Implementation of the commitment of the international financial institutions to sustainable devel opment should continue to be strengthened. The World Bank has a significant rol e to play, bearing in mind its expertise and the overall volume of resources that it commands. 129. Operationalization of the global mechanism of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa is also essential. C. Future r ole and programme of work of the Commission "httn· //umrm nn f\ro-/rl"~11mP.nt<::/m:i/rP.<::/snec/aress 19-2.htm 10/1 /2007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 46 of 52 on Sustainable Development 130. The Commission on Sustainable Development, within its mandate as specified in General Assembly resolution 47/191, will continue to provide a central forum for reviewing progress and for urging further implementation of Agenda 21 and other commitments made at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development or as a result of it; for conducting a high-level policy debate aimed at consensus-building on sustainable development; and for catalysing action and long-term commitment to sustainable development at all levels. It should continue to undertake these tasks in complementing and providing interlinkages to the work of other United Nations organs, organizations and bodies acting in the field of sustainable development. The Commission has a role to play in assessing the challenges of globalization as they relate to sustainable development. The Commission should perform its functions in coordination with other subsidiary bodies of the Economic and Social Council and with related organizations and institutions, including making recommendations, within its mandate, to the Economic and Social Council, bearing in mind the interrelated outcomes of recent United Nations conferences. 131. The Commission should focus on issues that are crucial to achieving the goals of sustainable development. It should promote policies that integrate economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainability and should provide for integrated consideration of linkages, both among sectors and between sectoral and cross-sectoral aspects of Agenda 21 . In this connection, the Commission should carry out its work in such a manner as to avoid unnecessary duplication and repetition of work undertaken by other relevant forums. 132. In the light of the above, it is recommended that the Commission on Sustainable Development adopt the multi-year programme of work for the period 1998-2002 contained in the appendix below. D. Methods of work of the Commission on Sustainable Development 133. Based on the experience gained during the period 1993-1997, the Commission, under the guidance of the Economic and Social Council , should: (a) Make concerted efforts to attract the greater involvement in its work of ministers and high-level national policy makers responsible for specifi c economic and social sectors, who, in particular, are encouraged to participate in the annual high-level segment of the Commissi on, together with the ministers and policy makers responsible for environment and development. The high-level segments of the Commission should become more interactive, and should focus on the priority issues being considered at a particular session. The Bureau of the Commission should conduct timely and open-ended consultations with the view to improving the organization of the work of the high-level segment ; (b) Continue to provide a forum for the exchange of national experience and best practices in the area of sustainable development, including through voluntary national communications or reports. Consideration should be given to the results of ongoing work aimed at streamlining requests for national information and reporting and to the results of the "pilot phase" relating to indicators of sustainable development. In this context, the Commission should consider more http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 1 ()/1 /') ()()'7 A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 47 of 52 effective modalities for the further implementation of the corrunitments made in Agenda 21, with appropriate emphasis on the means of implementation. Countries may wish to submit to the Corrunission, on a voluntary basis, information regarding their efforts to incorporate the relevant recorrunendations of other United Nations conferences in national sustainable development strategies; (c) Take into account regional developments related to the implementation of the outcomes of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. It should provide a forum for the exchange of experience on regional and subregional initiatives and regional collaboration for sustainable development. This could include the promotion of the voluntary regional exchange of national experience in the implementation of Agenda 21 and, inter alia, the possible development of modalities for reviews within regions by and among those countries that voluntarily agree to do so. In this context, the Corrunission should encourage the availability of funding for the implementation of initiatives related to such reviews; (d) Establish closer interaction with international financial, development and trade institutions, as well as with other relevant bodies within and outside the United Nations system, including the World Bank, the Global Environment Facility, the United Nations Development Prograrrune, the World Trade Organization, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and the United Nations Environment Prograrrune, which, in turn, are invited to take full account of the results of policy deliberations in the Corrunission and to integrate them in t h eir own work prograrrunes and activities; (e) Strengthen its interaction with representatives of major groups, including through greater and better use of focused dialogue sessions and round tables. These groups are important resources in operationalizing, managing and promoting sustainable development and contribute to the implementation of Agenda 21 . The major groups are encouraged to adopt arrangements for coordination and interaction in providing inputs to the Corrunission. Taking into account the Corrunission's prograrrune of work, this could include inputs from: (i) The scientific corrununity and research institutions, relating to the greater understanding of the interactions between human activity and natural ecosystems and on how to manage global systems sustainably; (ii) Women, children and youth, indigenous people and their corrununities, non-governmental organizations, local authorities , workers and their trade unions and farmers on the elaboration, promotion and sharing of effective strategies, policies, practices and processes to promote sustainable development; (iii) Business and industry groups on the elaboration, promotion and sharing of sustainable development practices and the promotion of corporate responsibility and accountability; (f) Organize the implementation of its next multi-year prograrrune of work in the most effective and productive way, including through shortening its annual meeting to two weeks. The inter-sessional ad hoc working groups should help to focus the Corrunission's sessions by identifying key elements to be discussed and important problems to be addressed within specific items of the Corrunission's prograrrune of work. 1 ()/1 /?()()7 A/RES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 48 of 52 Government hosted and f unded expert meetings will continue to provide inputs to the work of the Commission. 134 . The Secretary-General is invited to review the fun ctioning of the High-level Advisory Board on Sustainable Development and present proposals on ways to promote more direct interaction between the Board and the Commission, with a view to ensuring that the Board contributes to the deliberations on specific themes considered by the Commission in accordance with its programme of work . 135 . The work of the Committee on New and Renewable Sources of Energy and on Energy for Development and the Committee on Natural Resources should be more compatible with and supportive of the programme of work of the Commission . The Economic and Social Council, in carrying out its fun ctions related to the implementation of General Assembly resolution 50/227 of 24 May 1996, should consider, at its substantive session of 1997, the most effective means of bringing this about. 136. The arrangements for the election of the Bureau shoul d be changed in order to allow the same Bureau to provide guidance in the preparations for and to lead the work during the annual sessions of the Commission. The Commission would benefit from such a change. The Economic and Social Council should take the necessary action at its substantive session of 1997 to ensure that these new arrangements take effect. 137. The next comprehensive review of progress achieved in the implementation of Agenda 21 by the General· Assembly will take place in the year 2002. The modalities of this review should be determined at a later stage. Appendix MULTI-YEAR PROGRAMME OF WORK FOR THE COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, 1998-2002 1998 session: Overriding issues: poverty/consumption and production patterns Sectoral theme: STRATEGIC APPROACHES Cross-sectoral theme: Economic sector/major group: TRANSFER OF INDUSTRY TO FRESHWATER MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY /CAPACITY- Review of outstanding chapters of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States a/ BUILDING/EDUCATION / SCIENCE/AWARENESS- RAISING ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Main issues for an integrated discussion under the above theme: Main issues for an Main issues for an integrated discussion integrated discussion under the above theme: under the above http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 1 0 /1 /?()(17 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 49 of 52 Agenda 21, chapters 2-8, 10-15, 18-21, 23-34, 36, 37 and 40 Agenda 21 , chapters 2-4, 6, 16 , 23-37 and 40 theme: Agenda 21, chapters 4, 6, 9 , 16, 17 , 19-21, 23-35 and 40 1999 session: Overriding issues: poverty/consumption and production patterns Comprehensive review of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States Sectoral theme: OCEANS AND SEAS Main i ssues for an integrated discussion under the above theme: Agenda 21, chapters 5-7 , 9, 15, 17, 19-32, 34-36, 39 and 40 Cross-sectoral theme: Economic sector/major group: CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION PATTERNS Main issues for an TOURISM Main issues for an integrated discussion integrated discussion under the above theme: under the above theme: Agenda 21, chapters 2 -10 , 14, 18-32, 34-36 and 40 Agenda 21, chapters 2-7 , 13, 15 , 17, 23 -33 and 36 2000 session: Overriding issues: poverty/consumption and production patterns Sectoral theme: INTEGRATED PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND RESOURCES Main issues for an integrated discussion under the above theme: Agenda 21, chapters 2-8, 10-37 and 40 Cross-sectoral theme: Economic sector/major group : FINANCIAL RESOURCES / AGRICULTURE b / TRADE AND INVESTMENT/ ECONOMIC GROWTH Day of Indigenous People Main issues for an Main issues for an integrated discussion integrated discussion under the above theme : under the above Agenda 21, chapters 2-4' 23-33' 36-38 and 40 theme: Agenda 21, chapters 2-7' 10-16, 18-21, 23-34 , 37 and 40 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 2001 session: Overriding issues: poverty/consumption and production patterns ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Sectoral theme : Cross-sectoral theme: Economic sector/major 10/1 /?.007 NRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 50 of 52 ATMOSPHERE /ENERGY Main issues for an integrated discussion under the above theme : Agenda 21 , chapters 4 , 6-9, 11-14 , 17, 23-37, 39 and 40 2002 session Comprehensive review INFORMATION FOR DECI SION-MAKING AND PARTICIPATION INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION FOR AN ENABLING ENVIRONMENT group: ENERGY /TRANSPORT Main issues for an Main issues for an integrated discussion integrated discussion under the above theme : under the above theme : Agenda 21 , chapters 2 , Agenda 21 , c hapters 4, 6, 8, 23-36 and 2-5, 8, 9 , 20, 38-40 23-37 and 40 a / Revi ew to include those chapters of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States not covered in the in-depth review carried out by the Commission on Sustain able Development at its fourth session. b / Including f orestry. Notes 1/ Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992, vol. I , Resolutions Adopted by the Conferen ce (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigendum), resolution 1, annex II. 21 Ibid., annex I. 3/ Ibid., annex III (Non-legally Binding Authoritativ e Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development for All Types of Forests). 4/ As provided in Agenda 21, the term "Governments", when used therein, will be deemed to include as well the European Economic Community (now the European Union) within its area of competence . 5/ All references in the present document to the platforms for or p r ogrammes of action of major conferences should be considered in a manner consistent with the reports of those conferen ces. 61 Oxford, United Kingdom, Oxford University Press, 1997 . 7/ A/AC .237 /18 (Part II)/Add.l and Corr .l, annex I. 8/ United Nations Environment Programme, Conventi on on Biological http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 1 ()/1 /')(\f\'7 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra ... Page 51of52 Di versity (Env i ronmental Law and I nstitution Programme Activit y Centre ), June 1 992. 9 / A/49/84/Add.2, ann ex, appendix II. 10/ A/CONF .164/37 ; see also A/50/55 0, annex I. 11/ Report of the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States, Bridgetown, Barbados , 25 April-6 May 1994 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.94.I.18 and corrigenda), chap . I, resol ution l, annex II. 12 / A/51 /116 , annex II . 13 / Official Records of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, vol . XVII (Un ited Nations publication, Sales No. E.84.V.3), document A/CONF.62 /122. 14/ Report of the World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen, 6 -12 March 1995 (United Nations publication, Sales No . E.96 .IV .8), chap. I, resol ution 1, annex I. 15/ Ibid., resolution 1, annex II . 16/ Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4-15 September 1995 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.96 .IV.13), chap. I, resolution 1, annex II. 17 / See E/CN.17/1997/19, annex, appendix. 18 / See Legal Instruments Embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations done at Marrakesh on 15 April 1994 (GATT secretariat publication, Sales No. GATT/1994-7), vol. I. 19/ Adopted by the Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization held at Singapore in December 1996 (WT/MIN(96)/14). 20/ Report of the Inter national Conference on Populati on and Devel opment, Cairo, 5 -13 September 1994 (United Nations publicati on, Sales No. E.95.XIII .18). 21 / See World Health Organization, Primary Health Care: Report of the International Conference on Primary Health Care, Alma-Ata, Union of Sovi et Social ist Republics, 6-12 September 1978 (Geneva, 1978). 22 / Report of the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habi tat II), Istanbul , 3-14 June 1996 (A /CONF.165 /14), chap. I, resolution 1 , annexes I and II. 23 / See Official Record s of the Economic and Social Council, 1996, Supplement No. 8 (E /1996 /28), chap . I, sect. C, decision 4 /15, para. 45 (a). 24/ E/CN.17/1997 /12. 25 / See Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, 1997, Supplement No . 9 (E/1997 /29). 26 / FCCC /CP/1 995/7 /Add.1 , sect. I , decision 1 /CP.1 . 1 ()/1 /')()()7 AIRES/S-19/2 RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY -Progra... Page 52 of 52 27 / Report of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change on its second session, Geneva, 8-19 July 1996 (FCCC/CP/1996/15/Add.l), annex. 28/ United Nations , Treaty Series, vol . 1522, No. 26369 . (Forthcoming. ) 29 / Offici al Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-second Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/52 /25), annex, decision 19 /13 . 30 / United Nations , Treaty Series, vol. 1673, No. 28911 (forthcoming). 31/ Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, International Legal Materials, vol . 30, No . 3 (May 1991), p. 775, and vol. 31, No . 1 (January 1992), p . 164 . 32/ See The Courier Africa-Caribbean-Pacific-European Community, No. 120 (March-April 1990). 33/ Where "management" appears in the section on radioactive wastes, it is defined as handling, treatment, storage, transportation, including transboundary movement, and final disposal of such wastes. 34/ Report of the third meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 3-14 November 1996 (UNEP /CBD /COP /3 /38), annex II. 35/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Report of the World Food Summit, Rome , 13-17 November 1996, Part One (WFS 96 /REP) (Rome, 1 997), appendix. 36/ Report o f the Third Meeting o f the Conference of the Parties t o the Convention on Biological Dive rsity, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 3-14 November 1996 (UNEP /CBD/COP/3 /38), annex II, decision III/12. 37/ Official Rec ords of the Economic and Social Council, 1997, Supplement No. 9 (E /1997 /29), chap . I , resolution 5 /1, para. 6 . 38/ See A/CONF .172 /9 and Add .1. 39 / See Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, 1996, Supplement No. 8 (E /1996/2 8 ), chap. I, sect. C, decision 4/11. 40/ Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sec ond Session, Supplement No . 25 (A/52 /25), annex , deci sion 19/1, annex. 41/ Ibid., Supplement No. 25 (A/52/25), annex. This document has been posted online by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA). Reproduction and dissemination of the document -in electronic and/or printed format -is encouraged, provided acknowledgement is made of the role of the United Nations in making it available. Date last posted: 18 December 199916:30:10 Co mments and suggestions: esa@un.org http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/spec/aress19-2.htm 10/1 /?.007